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Wu Z, Jiang X, Chen J, Wang S, Yao C. Geochemistry and release risk for nutrients in lake sediments based on diffusive gradients in thin films. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND POLLUTION RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2023; 30:40588-40607. [PMID: 36622617 DOI: 10.1007/s11356-022-24961-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/29/2022] [Accepted: 12/20/2022] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
Abstract
A comprehensive understanding of the mobility of both nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P) and the inter-relationships between P, N, and iron (Fe) in sediments is important for controlling the "internal loadings" of nutrients in lakes. In this research, diffusive gradients in thin film (DGT) assemblies with binding layers (ZrO-AT, chelex, and ZrO) were designed for PO4-P, Fe, ammonium (NH4-N), and nitrate (NO3-N) at sediment/water interface (SWI) in Western Lake Taihu (China). The biogeochemical processes of N and P related to the physicochemical properties, the dynamic P transfer, the distribution characteristics of P microniches, and the estimation of the release risks in sediments in Western Lake Taihu were simultaneously revealed by the passive sampling technique-DGT with the high spatial resolutions (millimeter and sub-millimeter). Based on DGT concentration (CDGT) related to physicochemical properties in sediments, (1) P biogeochemical reactions included P release from Fe-bound P during Fe reduction, algae biomass decomposition, and phosphatase enzyme activity increased by NH4-N; (2) denitrification and dissimilatory nitrate reduction to ammonium (DNRA) led to exchangeable ammonium (NH4ex) enrichment and NH4-N release; anammox depleted NH4-N transfer; organic matter (OM) mineralization favored NH4-N release; and (3) aerobic nitrification led to NO3-N remobilization; denitrification and DNRA reduced NO3-N release. Redox status, OM, Fe, aluminum, or calcium influenced mobilization of nutrients. The numerical model of DGT-induced fluxes in sediments was used for dynamic P transfers with resupply types ("slow" ~ "fast") controlled by labile P pool, resupply constant, response time, and Dspt rate. The formation of P microniches in two dimensions was revealed. Sediment P release risk index (0.49 ~ 36.85 [lg (nmol cm-3 d-1)]) with "light" ~ "high" risks and diffusive fluxes across SWI (µg m-2 d-1) of 15.0 ~ 639 (PO4-P), - 1403 ~ 5010 (NH4-N), and - 1395 ~ 149 (NO3-N) were derived and lake management strategies were provided. The DGT technique provides the characterization of the mobilization of nutrients and evidence for biogeochemical processes at the fine spatial scales for control of internal loadings in sediments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhihao Wu
- National Engineering Laboratory for Lake Pollution Control and Ecological Restoration, Institute of Lake Environment, Chinese Research Academy of Environmental Sciences (CRAES), Beijing, 100012, China.,State Environmental Protection Key Laboratory for Lake Pollution Control, Institute of Lake Environment, Chinese Research Academy of Environmental Sciences (CRAES), Beijing, 100012, China
| | - Xia Jiang
- National Engineering Laboratory for Lake Pollution Control and Ecological Restoration, Institute of Lake Environment, Chinese Research Academy of Environmental Sciences (CRAES), Beijing, 100012, China.,State Environmental Protection Key Laboratory for Lake Pollution Control, Institute of Lake Environment, Chinese Research Academy of Environmental Sciences (CRAES), Beijing, 100012, China
| | - Junyi Chen
- National Engineering Laboratory for Lake Pollution Control and Ecological Restoration, Institute of Lake Environment, Chinese Research Academy of Environmental Sciences (CRAES), Beijing, 100012, China.,State Environmental Protection Key Laboratory for Lake Pollution Control, Institute of Lake Environment, Chinese Research Academy of Environmental Sciences (CRAES), Beijing, 100012, China
| | - Shuhang Wang
- National Engineering Laboratory for Lake Pollution Control and Ecological Restoration, Institute of Lake Environment, Chinese Research Academy of Environmental Sciences (CRAES), Beijing, 100012, China. .,State Environmental Protection Key Laboratory for Lake Pollution Control, Institute of Lake Environment, Chinese Research Academy of Environmental Sciences (CRAES), Beijing, 100012, China.
| | - Cheng Yao
- State Environmental Protection Key Laboratory for Lake Pollution Control, Institute of Lake Environment, Chinese Research Academy of Environmental Sciences (CRAES), Beijing, 100012, China.,College of Water Science, Beijing Normal University, Beijing, 100875, China
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Corbett TDW, Hartland A, Henderson W, Rys GJ, Schipper LA. Toward In-Field Determination of Nitrate Concentrations Via Diffusive Gradients in Thin Films-Incorporation of Reductants and Color Reagents. ACS OMEGA 2022; 7:10864-10876. [PMID: 35415374 PMCID: PMC8991909 DOI: 10.1021/acsomega.1c06120] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/02/2021] [Accepted: 03/03/2022] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Diffusive gradients in thin films (DGTs) have been established as useful tools for the determination of nitrate, phosphate, trace metals, and organic concentrations. General use of DGTs, however, is limited by the subsequent requirement for laboratory analysis. To increase the uptake of DGT as a tool for routine monitoring by nonspecialists, not researchers alone, methods for in-field analysis are required. Incorporation of color reagents into the binding layer, or as the binding layer, could enable the easy and accurate determination of analyte concentrations in-field. Here, we sought to develop a chitosan-stabilized silver nanoparticle (AuNP) suspension liquid-binding layer which developed color on exposure to nitrite, combined with an Fe(0)-impregnated poly-2-acrylamido-2-methyl-1-propanesulfonic acid/acrylamide copolymer hydrogel [Fe(0)-p(AMPS/AMA)] for the reduction of nitrate. The AuNP-chitosan suspension was housed in a 3D designed and printed DGT base, with a volume of 2 mL, for use with the standard DGT solution probe caps. A dialysis membrane with a molecular weight cutoff of <15 kDa was used, as part of the material diffusion layer, to ensure that the AuNP-chitosan did not diffuse through to the bulk solution. This synthesized AuNP-chitosan provided quantitative nitrite concentrations (0 to 1000 mg L-1) and masses (145 μg) in laboratory-based color development studies. An Fe(III)-impregnated poly-2-acrylamido-2-methyl-1-propanesulfonic acid/acrylamide copolymer hydrogel [Fe(III)-p(AMPS/AMA)] was developed (10% AMPS, and 90% AMA), which was treated with NaBH4 to form an Fe(0)-p(AMPS/AMA) hydrogel. The Fe(0)-p(AMPS/AMA) hydrogel quantitatively reduced nitrate to nitrite. The total nitrite mass produced was ∼110 μg, from nitrate. The diffusional characteristics of nitrite and nitrate through the Fe(III)-p(AMPS/AMA) and dialysis membrane were 1.40 × 10-5 and 1.40 × 10-5 and 5.05 × 10-6 and 5.15 × 10-6 cm2 s-1 at 25 °C respectively. The Fe(0)-hydrogel and AuNP-chitosan suspension operated successfully in laboratory tests individually; however, the combined AuNP-chitosan suspension and Fe(0)-hydrogel DGT did not provide quantitative nitrate concentrations. Further research is required to improve the reaction rate of the AuNP-chitosan nitrite-binding layer, to meet the requirement of rapid binding to operate as a DGT.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas D W Corbett
- Environmental Research Institute, University of Waikato Faculty of Science and Engineering, The University of Waikato, Hamilton 3216, New Zealand
| | - Adam Hartland
- Environmental Research Institute, University of Waikato Faculty of Science and Engineering, The University of Waikato, Hamilton 3216, New Zealand
| | - William Henderson
- University of Waikato Faculty of Science and Engineering, The University of Waikato, Hamilton 3216, New Zealand
| | - Gerald J Rys
- Ministry for Primary Industries, Charles Ferguson Building, Wellington 6011, New Zealand
| | - Louis A Schipper
- Environmental Research Institute, University of Waikato Faculty of Science and Engineering, The University of Waikato, Hamilton 3216, New Zealand
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Corbett T, Hartland A, Henderson W, Rys G, Schipper LA. The temperature and flow dependence of nitrate concentration and load estimates based on diffusive gradients in thin films. JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL QUALITY 2022; 51:250-259. [PMID: 34993967 DOI: 10.1002/jeq2.20323] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/10/2021] [Accepted: 12/20/2021] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Concentrations determined using diffusive gradients in thin films (DGT) have been used to derive time-averaged loads in streams and rivers. However, DGT provide time-weighted average concentrations that assume the independence of concentration and flow. Additionally, dynamic and coordinated changes in temperature, flow, and concentration are potential sources of bias in concentration and load calculations. We modeled scenarios in which temperature and flow were correlated to varying degrees with concentration and evaluated the consequences for DGT concentration and load calculations. As the correlation between solution flow and concentration moved toward 1 and -1, the load determined by DGT either overestimated or underestimated the actual load by as much as 30%. In DGT-based load estimates, the degree of potential bias should be assessed, and the concentration-flow relation should be characterized. As the correlation of analyte concentration and temperature approached 1 and -1, the deviation of the concentration determined by DGT from the actual concentration increased. In most cases, this bias was < 2%; however, if the changes in concentration and temperature were large (∼10 mg L-1 and ∼10 °C), the bias exceeded 5%. Concentration and temperature are unlikely to be perfectly or strongly correlated or anti-correlated in natural systems and thus should not affect the accuracy of DGT concentration calculations in most circumstances. The more solution temperature, flow, and concentration were uncorrelated, the closer DGT-derived concentration and load were to the actual solution concentration and load.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas Corbett
- School of Science, The Univ. of Waikato, Hamilton, 3216, New Zealand
- Environmental Research Institute, The Univ. of Waikato, Hamilton, 3216, New Zealand
| | - Adam Hartland
- School of Science, The Univ. of Waikato, Hamilton, 3216, New Zealand
- Environmental Research Institute, The Univ. of Waikato, Hamilton, 3216, New Zealand
| | - William Henderson
- School of Science, The Univ. of Waikato, Hamilton, 3216, New Zealand
| | - Gerald Rys
- Ministry for Primary Industries, Wellington, 6011, New Zealand
| | - Louis A Schipper
- School of Science, The Univ. of Waikato, Hamilton, 3216, New Zealand
- Environmental Research Institute, The Univ. of Waikato, Hamilton, 3216, New Zealand
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Developments in the diffusive gradients in thin-films technique for the speciation of oxyanions and platinum group elements in aquatic systems. Trends Analyt Chem 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.trac.2021.116513] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
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Corbett TDW, Hartland A, Henderson W, Rys GJ, Schipper LA. Development of bromide-selective Diffusive Gradients in Thin-Films for the measurement of average flow rate of streams. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2021; 788:147737. [PMID: 34020089 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.147737] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/09/2021] [Revised: 04/27/2021] [Accepted: 05/09/2021] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Diffusive Gradients in Thin-Films (DGT) have traditionally been used to measure time-weighted average concentration in water. We tested whether Br--DGT in combination with the trace-dilution flow rate method, could be used as a new approach for measuring water flow rate. A novel bromide selective DGT based on the Purolite Bromide Plus anion exchange resin (Br--DGT) was developed, which provided environmental bromide concentrations comparable to grab samples. The Br--DGT provided quantitative bromide concentrations at a range of pH, competing ion concentrations, and in synthetic natural solution. The uptake efficiency was 95.7 ± 3.4%, and the elution efficiency was 95.5 ± 4.7%. The absorption maximum/saturation point of each binding disk was 0.684 ± 0.001 mg. Bromide adsorption to the binding layer was linear to 44.1% of the total binding capacity, 0.302 mg. The determined diffusion coefficient through the agarose cross-linked polyacrylamide (APA) hydrogels was 1.05 × 10-5 cm2 s-1 at 17.9 °C, temperature corrected to 25 °C was 1.29 × 10-5 cm2 s-1. DGT flow rates were between -14.7 and 6.50% of the flow independently monitored flow rate (weir). In comparison, grab sample flow rates diverged by 5.52 to 58.9% from the weir flow rate.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas D W Corbett
- School of Science, The University of Waikato, Hamilton 3216, New Zealand; Environmental Research Institute, The University of Waikato, Hamilton 3216, New Zealand.
| | - Adam Hartland
- School of Science, The University of Waikato, Hamilton 3216, New Zealand; Environmental Research Institute, The University of Waikato, Hamilton 3216, New Zealand
| | - William Henderson
- School of Science, The University of Waikato, Hamilton 3216, New Zealand
| | - Gerald J Rys
- Ministry for Primary Industries, Wellington 6011, New Zealand
| | - Louis A Schipper
- School of Science, The University of Waikato, Hamilton 3216, New Zealand; Environmental Research Institute, The University of Waikato, Hamilton 3216, New Zealand
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Zhihao W, Xia J, Shuhang W, Li Z, Lixin J, Junyi C, Qing C, Kun W, Cheng Y. Mobilization and geochemistry of nutrients in sediment evaluated by diffusive gradients in thin films: Significance for lake management. JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT 2021; 292:112770. [PMID: 34020304 DOI: 10.1016/j.jenvman.2021.112770] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/27/2020] [Revised: 04/29/2021] [Accepted: 05/04/2021] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Investigation of in-situ mobilization of both nitrogen (N) and phosphate (PO43-) in sediment is important for lake management strategy. In this paper, diffusion gradients in thin films (DGT) and DGT induced flux in sediments (DIFS) model are newly designed for in-situ measurement of iron (Fe), PO43-, nitrate (NO3-N) and ammonium (NH4-N), and nutrients' mobility in sediment in Lake Nanhu (China). According to DGT profiles together with physicochemical properties in sediment, (I) PO43- is released from (i) Fe-bound P plus loosely sorbed P in anoxic sediment and (ii) the loosely sorbed P in oxic sediment; (II) anoxic sediment inhibits nitrification and NO3-N release, but it favors denitrification and dissimilatory nitrate reduction to ammonium (DNRA), leading to NH4-N release; (III) Eh and organic matter are two key influence factors on mobility of PO43-, NO3-N and NH4-N. According to DIFS calculation, the dynamics of desorption and diffusion at two sites belong to (i) slow rate of resupply and (ii) fast resupply cases, respectively. Internal loadings are estimated to be 92.74 (PO43-), 268.1 (NH4-N) and -2466 kg a-1 (NO3-N), which reflects sediment mainly acts as a source for PO43- and NH4-N, and a sink for NO3-N in water. Based on sediment P release risk index (SPRRI), P release risks in lake sediments are estimated, ranging from light to relative high level. DGT and SPRRI aid choice of restoration methods for sediment, including sediment dredging, phytoremediation and in-situ inactivation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wu Zhihao
- National Engineering Laboratory for Lake Pollution Control and Ecological Restoration, Institute of Lake Environment, Chinese Research Academy of Environmental Sciences (CRAES), Beijing, 100012, China; State Environmental Protection Key Laboratory for Lake Pollution Control, Institute of Lake Environment, Chinese Research Academy of Environmental Sciences (CRAES), Beijing, 100012, China
| | - Jiang Xia
- National Engineering Laboratory for Lake Pollution Control and Ecological Restoration, Institute of Lake Environment, Chinese Research Academy of Environmental Sciences (CRAES), Beijing, 100012, China; State Environmental Protection Key Laboratory for Lake Pollution Control, Institute of Lake Environment, Chinese Research Academy of Environmental Sciences (CRAES), Beijing, 100012, China
| | - Wang Shuhang
- National Engineering Laboratory for Lake Pollution Control and Ecological Restoration, Institute of Lake Environment, Chinese Research Academy of Environmental Sciences (CRAES), Beijing, 100012, China; State Environmental Protection Key Laboratory for Lake Pollution Control, Institute of Lake Environment, Chinese Research Academy of Environmental Sciences (CRAES), Beijing, 100012, China.
| | - Zhao Li
- State Environmental Protection Key Laboratory for Lake Pollution Control, Institute of Lake Environment, Chinese Research Academy of Environmental Sciences (CRAES), Beijing, 100012, China
| | - Jiao Lixin
- State Environmental Protection Key Laboratory for Lake Pollution Control, Institute of Lake Environment, Chinese Research Academy of Environmental Sciences (CRAES), Beijing, 100012, China
| | - Chen Junyi
- State Environmental Protection Key Laboratory for Lake Pollution Control, Institute of Lake Environment, Chinese Research Academy of Environmental Sciences (CRAES), Beijing, 100012, China
| | - Cai Qing
- State Environmental Protection Key Laboratory for Lake Pollution Control, Institute of Lake Environment, Chinese Research Academy of Environmental Sciences (CRAES), Beijing, 100012, China
| | - Wang Kun
- State Environmental Protection Key Laboratory for Lake Pollution Control, Institute of Lake Environment, Chinese Research Academy of Environmental Sciences (CRAES), Beijing, 100012, China
| | - Yao Cheng
- State Environmental Protection Key Laboratory for Lake Pollution Control, Institute of Lake Environment, Chinese Research Academy of Environmental Sciences (CRAES), Beijing, 100012, China; College of Water Science, Beijing Normal University, Beijing, 100875, China
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Galceran J, Gao Y, Puy J, Leermakers M, Rey-Castro C, Zhou C, Baeyens W. Speciation of Inorganic Compounds in Aquatic Systems Using Diffusive Gradients in Thin-Films: A Review. Front Chem 2021; 9:624511. [PMID: 33889563 PMCID: PMC8057345 DOI: 10.3389/fchem.2021.624511] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2020] [Accepted: 03/02/2021] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
The speciation of trace metals in an aquatic system involves the determination of free ions, complexes (labile and non-labile), colloids, and the total dissolved concentration. In this paper, we review the integrated assessment of free ions and labile metal complexes using Diffusive Gradients in Thin-films (DGT), a dynamic speciation technique. The device consists of a diffusive hydrogel layer made of polyacrylamide, backed by a layer of resin (usually Chelex-100) for all trace metals except for Hg. The best results for Hg speciation are obtained with agarose as hydrogel and a thiol-based resin. The diffusive domain controls the diffusion flux of the metal ions and complexes to the resin, which strongly binds all free ions. By using DGT devices with different thicknesses of the diffusive or resin gels and exploiting expressions derived from kinetic models, one can determine the labile concentrations, mobilities, and labilities of different species of an element in an aquatic system. This procedure has been applied to the determination of the organic pool of trace metals in freshwaters or to the characterization of organic and inorganic complexes in sea waters. The concentrations that are obtained represent time-weighted averages (TWA) over the deployment period.
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Affiliation(s)
- Josep Galceran
- Departament de Química, Universitat de Lleida and AGROTECNIO-CERCA, Lleida, Spain
| | - Yue Gao
- Analytical, Environmental and Geo-Chemistry Department, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Brussels, Belgium
| | - Jaume Puy
- Departament de Química, Universitat de Lleida and AGROTECNIO-CERCA, Lleida, Spain
| | - Martine Leermakers
- Analytical, Environmental and Geo-Chemistry Department, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Brussels, Belgium
| | - Carlos Rey-Castro
- Departament de Química, Universitat de Lleida and AGROTECNIO-CERCA, Lleida, Spain
| | - Chunyang Zhou
- Analytical, Environmental and Geo-Chemistry Department, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Brussels, Belgium
| | - Willy Baeyens
- Analytical, Environmental and Geo-Chemistry Department, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Brussels, Belgium
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You N, Yao H, Wang Y, Fan HT, Wang CS, Sun T. Development and evaluation of diffusive gradients in thin films based on nano-sized zinc oxide particles for the in situ sampling of tetracyclines in pig breeding wastewater. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2019; 651:1653-1660. [PMID: 30312908 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.09.323] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/16/2018] [Revised: 09/24/2018] [Accepted: 09/25/2018] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
The pollution of antibiotics, including tetracyclines (TCs), in aquatic environments has become an issue of concern in recent years. Herein, an in situ sampling of TCs in pig breeding wastewater that utilizes the technique of diffusive gradients in thin films (DGT), based on commercial nanosized ZnO (nanoZnO) particles as the potential effective binding agent and a polyethersulfone (PES) membrane as the diffusion layer, was developed. The diffusion coefficients of tetracycline (TC), oxytetracycline (OTC) and chlortetracycline (CTC) in a PES membrane at 25 °C were (1.37 ± 0.06) × 10-6 cm2 s-1, (1.29 ± 0.05) × 10-6 cm2 s-1 and (1.94 ± 0.07) × 10-6 cm2 s-1, respectively. The results showed that the adsorption capacities of a gel disc containing 2.5 g L-1 of nanoZnO particles were as high as 3.93 ± 0.20 mg disc-1 for TC, 3.21 ± 0.20 mg disc-1 for OTC and 4.62 ± 0.22 mg disc-1 for CTC. Both a solution pH in the range of 5-9 and an ionic strength (as pNaCl) in the range of 1-3 had an insignificant influence on the TCs uptake by nanoZnO-DGT samplers. There was no significant influence of fulvic acid or tannic acid on the TC uptake by nanoZnO-DGT samplers at the tested mass ratios. For all spiked freshwater samples, there was no notable interference of matrices on the performance of the nanoZnO-DGT samplers, suggesting that the nanoZnO-DGT samplers yielded satisfactory results for the uptake of TCs at concentrations existing in the spiked freshwater samples. Field deployment of the nanoZnO-DGT samplers in pig breeding wastewater also exhibited excellent precision and accuracy, indicating that the nanoZnO-DGT samplers could be used as a promising method for the in situ sampling of TC antibiotics in aquatic environments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nan You
- College of Chemistry Chemical Engineering, and Environmental Engineering, Liaoning University of Petroleum & Chemical Technology, Fushun 113001, Liaoning, China
| | - Hui Yao
- College of Applied Chemistry, Shenyang University of Chemical Technology, Shenyang, 100142, Liaoning, China
| | - Yun Wang
- College of Sciences, Northeastern University, Shenyang 110004, China
| | - Hong-Tao Fan
- College of Chemistry Chemical Engineering, and Environmental Engineering, Liaoning University of Petroleum & Chemical Technology, Fushun 113001, Liaoning, China.
| | - Chang-Song Wang
- College of Applied Chemistry, Shenyang University of Chemical Technology, Shenyang, 100142, Liaoning, China.
| | - Ting Sun
- College of Sciences, Northeastern University, Shenyang 110004, China.
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