1
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Bhoite A, Gaur NK, Palange M, Kontham R, Gupta V, Kulkarni K. Structure of epoxide hydrolase 2 from Mangifera indica throws light on the substrate specificity determinants of plant epoxide hydrolases. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2024; 733:150444. [PMID: 39067247 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbrc.2024.150444] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/27/2024] [Revised: 07/11/2024] [Accepted: 07/23/2024] [Indexed: 07/30/2024]
Abstract
Epoxide hydrolases (EHs) are a group of ubiquitous enzymes that catalyze hydrolysis of chemically reactive epoxides to yield corresponding dihydrodiols. Despite extensive studies on EHs from different clades, generic rules governing their substrate specificity determinants have remained elusive. Here, we present structural, biochemical and molecular dynamics simulation studies on MiEH2, a plant epoxide hydrolase from Mangifera indica. Comparative structure-function analysis of nine homologs of MiEH2, which include a few AlphaFold structural models, show that the two conserved tyrosines (MiEH2Y152 and MiEH2Y232) from the lid domain dissect substrate binding tunnel into two halves, forming substrate-binding-pocket one (BP1) and two (BP2). This compartmentalization offers diverse binding modes to their substrates, as exemplified by the binding of smaller aromatic substrates, such as styrene oxide (SO). Docking and molecular dynamics simulations reveal that the linear epoxy fatty acid substrates predominantly occupy BP1, while the aromatic substrates can bind to either BP1 or BP2. Furthermore, SO preferentially binds to BP2, by stacking against catalytically important histidine (MiEH2H297) with the conserved lid tyrosines engaging its epoxide oxygen. Residue (MiEH2L263) next to the catalytic aspartate (MiEH2D262) modulates substrate binding modes. Thus, the divergent binding modes correlate with the differential affinities of the EHs for their substrates. Furthermore, long-range dynamical coupling between the lid and core domains critically influences substrate enantioselectivity in plant EHs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ashwini Bhoite
- Division of Biochemical Sciences, CSIR-National Chemical Laboratory, Dr. Homi Bhabha Road, Pune- 411008, India; Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research (AcSIR), Ghaziabad- 201002, India
| | - Neeraj K Gaur
- Division of Biochemical Sciences, CSIR-National Chemical Laboratory, Dr. Homi Bhabha Road, Pune- 411008, India; Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research (AcSIR), Ghaziabad- 201002, India
| | - Megha Palange
- Organic Chemistry Division, CSIR-National Chemical Laboratory, Dr. Homi Bhabha Road, Pune- 411008, India; Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research (AcSIR), Ghaziabad- 201002, India
| | - Ravindar Kontham
- Organic Chemistry Division, CSIR-National Chemical Laboratory, Dr. Homi Bhabha Road, Pune- 411008, India; Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research (AcSIR), Ghaziabad- 201002, India
| | - Vidya Gupta
- Division of Biochemical Sciences, CSIR-National Chemical Laboratory, Dr. Homi Bhabha Road, Pune- 411008, India; Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research (AcSIR), Ghaziabad- 201002, India
| | - Kiran Kulkarni
- Division of Biochemical Sciences, CSIR-National Chemical Laboratory, Dr. Homi Bhabha Road, Pune- 411008, India; Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research (AcSIR), Ghaziabad- 201002, India.
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2
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Yi J, Goh NJJ, Li Z. Green and Enantioselective Synthesis via Cascade Biotransformations: From Simple Racemic Substrates to High-Value Chiral Chemicals. Chem Asian J 2024:e202400565. [PMID: 38954385 DOI: 10.1002/asia.202400565] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/17/2024] [Revised: 06/30/2024] [Accepted: 07/02/2024] [Indexed: 07/04/2024]
Abstract
Asymmetric synthesis of chiral chemicals in high enantiomeric excess (ee) is pivotal to the pharmaceutical industry, but classic chemistry usually requires multi-step reactions, harsh conditions, and expensive chiral ligands, and sometimes suffers from unsatisfactory enantioselectivity. Enzymatic catalysis is a much greener and more enantioselective alternative, and cascade biotransformations with multi-step reactions can be performed in one pot to avoid costly intermediate isolation and minimise waste generation. One of the most attractive applications of enzymatic cascade transformations is to convert easily available simple racemic substrates into valuable functionalised chiral chemicals in high yields and ee. Here, we review the three general strategies to build up such cascade biotransformations, including enantioconvergent reaction, dynamic kinetic resolution, and destruction-and-reinstallation of chirality. Examples of cascade transformations using racemic substrates such as racemic epoxides, alcohols, hydroxy acids, etc. to produce the chiral amino alcohols, hydroxy acids, amines, and amino acids are given. The product concentration, ee, and yield, scalability, and substrate scope of these enzymatic cascades are critically reviewed. To further improve the efficiency and practical applicability of the cascades, enzyme engineering to enhance catalytic activities of the key enzymes using the latest microfluidics-based ultrahigh-throughput screening and artificial intelligence-guided directed evolution could be a useful approach.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jieran Yi
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, National University of Singapore, 4 Engineering Drive 4, Singapore, 117585, Singapore
| | - Nicholas Jun Jie Goh
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, National University of Singapore, 4 Engineering Drive 4, Singapore, 117585, Singapore
| | - Zhi Li
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, National University of Singapore, 4 Engineering Drive 4, Singapore, 117585, Singapore
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3
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Capone M, Dell’Orletta G, Nicholls BT, Scholes GD, Hyster TK, Aschi M, Daidone I. Evidence of a Distinctive Enantioselective Binding Mode for the Photoinduced Radical Cyclization of α-Chloroamides in Ene-Reductases. ACS Catal 2023; 13:15310-15321. [PMID: 38058601 PMCID: PMC10696551 DOI: 10.1021/acscatal.3c03934] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/21/2023] [Revised: 10/06/2023] [Accepted: 10/30/2023] [Indexed: 12/08/2023]
Abstract
We demonstrate here through molecular simulations and mutational studies the origin of the enantioselectivity in the photoinduced radical cyclization of α-chloroacetamides catalyzed by ene-reductases, in particular the Gluconobacter oxidans ene-reductase and the Old Yellow Enzyme 1, which show opposite enantioselectivity. Our results reveal that neither the π-facial selectivity model nor a protein-induced selective stabilization of the transition states is able to explain the enantioselectivity of the radical cyclization in the studied flavoenzymes. We propose a new enantioinduction scenario according to which enantioselectivity is indeed controlled by transition-state stability; however, the relative stability of the prochiral transition states is not determined by direct interaction with the protein but is rather dependent on an inherent degree of freedom within the substrate itself. This intrinsic degree of freedom, distinct from the traditional π-facial exposure mode, can be controlled by the substrate conformational selection upon binding to the enzyme.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matteo Capone
- Department
of Physical and Chemical Sciences, University
of L’Aquila, via
Vetoio (Coppito 1), L’Aquila 67010, Italy
| | - Gianluca Dell’Orletta
- Department
of Physical and Chemical Sciences, University
of L’Aquila, via
Vetoio (Coppito 1), L’Aquila 67010, Italy
| | - Bryce T. Nicholls
- Department
of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Cornell
University, Ithaca, New York 14853, United States
| | - Gregory D. Scholes
- Department
of Chemistry, Frick Laboratory, Princeton
University, Princeton, New Jersey 08544, United States
| | - Todd K. Hyster
- Department
of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Cornell
University, Ithaca, New York 14853, United States
| | - Massimiliano Aschi
- Department
of Physical and Chemical Sciences, University
of L’Aquila, via
Vetoio (Coppito 1), L’Aquila 67010, Italy
| | - Isabella Daidone
- Department
of Physical and Chemical Sciences, University
of L’Aquila, via
Vetoio (Coppito 1), L’Aquila 67010, Italy
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4
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Yi J, Wang Z, Li Z. Cascade Biotransformations for Enantioconvergent Conversion of Racemic Styrene Oxides to ( R)-Mandelic Acids. ACS Catal 2022. [DOI: 10.1021/acscatal.2c04472] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Jieran Yi
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, National University of Singapore, 4 Engineering Drive 4, Singapore 117585, Singapore
| | - Zilong Wang
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, National University of Singapore, 4 Engineering Drive 4, Singapore 117585, Singapore
| | - Zhi Li
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, National University of Singapore, 4 Engineering Drive 4, Singapore 117585, Singapore
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5
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Fu Y, Chen H, Fu W, Garcia-Borràs M, Yang Y, Liu P. Engineered P450 Atom-Transfer Radical Cyclases are Bifunctional Biocatalysts: Reaction Mechanism and Origin of Enantioselectivity. J Am Chem Soc 2022; 144:13344-13355. [PMID: 35830682 PMCID: PMC9339536 DOI: 10.1021/jacs.2c04937] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
New-to-nature radical biocatalysis has recently emerged as a powerful strategy to tame fleeting open-shell intermediates for stereoselective transformations. In 2021, we introduced a novel metalloredox biocatalysis strategy that leverages the innate redox properties of the heme cofactor of P450 enzymes, furnishing new-to-nature atom-transfer radical cyclases (ATRCases) with excellent activity and stereoselectivity. Herein, we report a combined computational and experimental study to shed light on the mechanism and origins of enantioselectivity for this system. Molecular dynamics and quantum mechanics/molecular mechanics (QM/MM) calculations revealed an unexpected role of the key beneficial mutation I263Q. The glutamine residue serves as an essential hydrogen bond donor that engages with the carbonyl moiety of the substrate to promote bromine atom abstraction and enhance the enantioselectivity of radical cyclization. Therefore, the evolved ATRCase is a bifunctional biocatalyst, wherein the heme cofactor enables atom-transfer radical biocatalysis, while the hydrogen bond donor residue further enhances the activity and enantioselectivity. Unlike many enzymatic stereocontrol rationales based on a rigid substrate binding model, our computations demonstrate a high degree of rotational flexibility of the allyl moiety in an enzyme-substrate complex and succeeding intermediates. Therefore, the enantioselectivity is controlled by the radical cyclization transition states rather than the substrate orientation in ground-state complexes in the preceding steps. During radical cyclization, anchoring effects of the Q263 residue and steric interactions with the heme cofactor concurrently control the π-facial selectivity, allowing for highly enantioselective C-C bond formation. Our computational findings are corroborated by experiments with ATRCase mutants generated from site-directed mutagenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yue Fu
- Department of Chemistry, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 15260, United States
| | - Heyu Chen
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of California, Santa Barbara, California 93106, United States
| | - Wenzhen Fu
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of California, Santa Barbara, California 93106, United States
| | - Marc Garcia-Borràs
- Institut de Química Computacional i Catalisi (IQCC) and Departament de Química, Universitat de Girona, Girona 17003, Spain
| | - Yang Yang
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of California, Santa Barbara, California 93106, United States
- Biomolecular Science and Engineering (BMSE) Program, University of California, Santa Barbara, California 93106, United States
| | - Peng Liu
- Department of Chemistry, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 15260, United States
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6
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Romero-Rivera A, Corbella M, Parracino A, Patrick WM, Kamerlin SCL. Complex Loop Dynamics Underpin Activity, Specificity, and Evolvability in the (βα) 8 Barrel Enzymes of Histidine and Tryptophan Biosynthesis. JACS AU 2022; 2:943-960. [PMID: 35557756 PMCID: PMC9088769 DOI: 10.1021/jacsau.2c00063] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/29/2022] [Revised: 03/16/2022] [Accepted: 03/18/2022] [Indexed: 05/16/2023]
Abstract
Enzymes are conformationally dynamic, and their dynamical properties play an important role in regulating their specificity and evolvability. In this context, substantial attention has been paid to the role of ligand-gated conformational changes in enzyme catalysis; however, such studies have focused on tremendously proficient enzymes such as triosephosphate isomerase and orotidine 5'-monophosphate decarboxylase, where the rapid (μs timescale) motion of a single loop dominates the transition between catalytically inactive and active conformations. In contrast, the (βα)8-barrels of tryptophan and histidine biosynthesis, such as the specialist isomerase enzymes HisA and TrpF, and the bifunctional isomerase PriA, are decorated by multiple long loops that undergo conformational transitions on the ms (or slower) timescale. Studying the interdependent motions of multiple slow loops, and their role in catalysis, poses a significant computational challenge. This work combines conventional and enhanced molecular dynamics simulations with empirical valence bond simulations to provide rich details of the conformational behavior of the catalytic loops in HisA, PriA, and TrpF, and the role of their plasticity in facilitating bifunctionality in PriA and evolved HisA variants. In addition, we demonstrate that, similar to other enzymes activated by ligand-gated conformational changes, loops 3 and 4 of HisA and PriA act as gripper loops, facilitating the isomerization of the large bulky substrate ProFAR, albeit now on much slower timescales. This hints at convergent evolution on these different (βα)8-barrel scaffolds. Finally, our work reemphasizes the potential of engineering loop dynamics as a tool to artificially manipulate the catalytic repertoire of TIM-barrel proteins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adrian Romero-Rivera
- Department
of Chemistry—BMC, Uppsala University, BMC Box 576, S-751 23 Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Marina Corbella
- Department
of Chemistry—BMC, Uppsala University, BMC Box 576, S-751 23 Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Antonietta Parracino
- Department
of Chemistry—BMC, Uppsala University, BMC Box 576, S-751 23 Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Wayne M. Patrick
- Centre
for Biodiscovery, School of Biological Sciences, Victoria University of Wellington, 6012 Wellington, New Zealand
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7
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Mitusińska K, Wojsa P, Bzówka M, Raczyńska A, Bagrowska W, Samol A, Kapica P, Góra A. Structure-function relationship between soluble epoxide hydrolases structure and their tunnel network. Comput Struct Biotechnol J 2021; 20:193-205. [PMID: 35024092 PMCID: PMC8715294 DOI: 10.1016/j.csbj.2021.10.042] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/21/2021] [Revised: 10/21/2021] [Accepted: 10/23/2021] [Indexed: 12/04/2022] Open
Abstract
Enzymes with buried active sites maintain their catalytic function via a single tunnel or tunnel network. In this study we analyzed the functionality of soluble epoxide hydrolases (sEHs) tunnel network, by comparing the overall enzyme structure with the tunnel's shape and size. sEHs were divided into three groups based on their structure and the tunnel usage. The obtained results were compared with known substrate preferences of the studied enzymes, as well as reported in our other work evolutionary analyses data. The tunnel network architecture corresponded well with the evolutionary lineage of the source organism and large differences between enzymes were observed from long fragments insertions. This strategy can be used during protein re-engineering process for large changes introduction, whereas tunnel modification can be applied for fine-tuning of enzyme.
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Key Words
- CH65-EH, soluble epoxide hydrolase from an unknown source, sampled in hot springs in China
- Protein engineering
- Sibe-EH, soluble epoxide hydrolase from an unknown source, sampled in hot springs in Russia
- Soluble epoxide hydrolases
- StEH1, Solanum tuberosum soluble epoxide hydrolase
- Structure–function relationship
- TrEH, Trichoderma reesei soluble epoxide hydrolase
- Tunnel network
- VrEH2, Vigna radiata soluble epoxide hydrolase
- bmEH, Bacillus megaterium soluble epoxide hydrolase
- hsEH, Homo sapiens soluble epoxide hydrolase
- msEH, Mus musculus soluble epoxide hydrolase
- sEHs, soluble epoxide hydrolases
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Affiliation(s)
- Karolina Mitusińska
- Tunneling Group, Biotechnology Centre, Silesian University of Technology, Gliwice, Poland
| | - Piotr Wojsa
- Tunneling Group, Biotechnology Centre, Silesian University of Technology, Gliwice, Poland
| | - Maria Bzówka
- Tunneling Group, Biotechnology Centre, Silesian University of Technology, Gliwice, Poland
| | - Agata Raczyńska
- Tunneling Group, Biotechnology Centre, Silesian University of Technology, Gliwice, Poland
| | - Weronika Bagrowska
- Tunneling Group, Biotechnology Centre, Silesian University of Technology, Gliwice, Poland
| | - Aleksandra Samol
- Tunneling Group, Biotechnology Centre, Silesian University of Technology, Gliwice, Poland
| | - Patryk Kapica
- Tunneling Group, Biotechnology Centre, Silesian University of Technology, Gliwice, Poland
| | - Artur Góra
- Tunneling Group, Biotechnology Centre, Silesian University of Technology, Gliwice, Poland
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8
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Wu L, Qin L, Nie Y, Xu Y, Zhao YL. Computer-aided understanding and engineering of enzymatic selectivity. Biotechnol Adv 2021; 54:107793. [PMID: 34217814 DOI: 10.1016/j.biotechadv.2021.107793] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/03/2021] [Revised: 04/26/2021] [Accepted: 06/28/2021] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
Enzymes offering chemo-, regio-, and stereoselectivity enable the asymmetric synthesis of high-value chiral molecules. Unfortunately, the drawback that naturally occurring enzymes are often inefficient or have undesired selectivity toward non-native substrates hinders the broadening of biocatalytic applications. To match the demands of specific selectivity in asymmetric synthesis, biochemists have implemented various computer-aided strategies in understanding and engineering enzymatic selectivity, diversifying the available repository of artificial enzymes. Here, given that the entire asymmetric catalytic cycle, involving precise interactions within the active pocket and substrate transport in the enzyme channel, could affect the enzymatic efficiency and selectivity, we presented a comprehensive overview of the computer-aided workflow for enzymatic selectivity. This review includes a mechanistic understanding of enzymatic selectivity based on quantum mechanical calculations, rational design of enzymatic selectivity guided by enzyme-substrate interactions, and enzymatic selectivity regulation via enzyme channel engineering. Finally, we discussed the computational paradigm for designing enzyme selectivity in silico to facilitate the advancement of asymmetric biosynthesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lunjie Wu
- School of Biotechnology and Key Laboratory of Industrial Biotechnology, Ministry of Education, Jiangnan University, Wuxi 214122, China
| | - Lei Qin
- School of Biotechnology and Key Laboratory of Industrial Biotechnology, Ministry of Education, Jiangnan University, Wuxi 214122, China
| | - Yao Nie
- School of Biotechnology and Key Laboratory of Industrial Biotechnology, Ministry of Education, Jiangnan University, Wuxi 214122, China; Suqian Industrial Technology Research Institute of Jiangnan University, Suqian 223814, China.
| | - Yan Xu
- School of Biotechnology and Key Laboratory of Industrial Biotechnology, Ministry of Education, Jiangnan University, Wuxi 214122, China; State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Technology, Jiangnan University, Wuxi 214122, China.
| | - Yi-Lei Zhao
- State Key Laboratory of Microbial Metabolism, Joint International Research Laboratory of Metabolic and Developmental Sciences, MOE-LSB & MOE-LSC, School of Life Sciences and Biotechnology, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200240, China
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9
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Biler M, Crean RM, Schweiger AK, Kourist R, Kamerlin SCL. Ground-State Destabilization by Active-Site Hydrophobicity Controls the Selectivity of a Cofactor-Free Decarboxylase. J Am Chem Soc 2020; 142:20216-20231. [PMID: 33180505 PMCID: PMC7735706 DOI: 10.1021/jacs.0c10701] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/08/2020] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
Abstract
Bacterial arylmalonate decarboxylase (AMDase) and evolved variants have become a valuable tool with which to access both enantiomers of a broad range of chiral arylaliphatic acids with high optical purity. Yet, the molecular principles responsible for the substrate scope, activity, and selectivity of this enzyme are only poorly understood to date, greatly hampering the predictability and design of improved enzyme variants for specific applications. In this work, empirical valence bond and metadynamics simulations were performed on wild-type AMDase and variants thereof to obtain a better understanding of the underlying molecular processes determining reaction outcome. Our results clearly reproduce the experimentally observed substrate scope and support a mechanism driven by ground-state destabilization of the carboxylate group being cleaved by the enzyme. In addition, our results indicate that, in the case of the nonconverted or poorly converted substrates studied in this work, increased solvent exposure of the active site upon binding of these substrates can disturb the vulnerable network of interactions responsible for facilitating the AMDase-catalyzed cleavage of CO2. Finally, our results indicate a switch from preferential cleavage of the pro-(R) to the pro-(S) carboxylate group in the CLG-IPL variant of AMDase for all substrates studied. This appears to be due to the emergence of a new hydrophobic pocket generated by the insertion of the six amino acid substitutions, into which the pro-(S) carboxylate binds. Our results allow insight into the tight interaction network determining AMDase selectivity, which in turn provides guidance for the identification of target residues for future enzyme engineering.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michal Biler
- Department
of Chemistry−BMC, Uppsala University, BMC Box 576, S-751 23 Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Rory M. Crean
- Department
of Chemistry−BMC, Uppsala University, BMC Box 576, S-751 23 Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Anna K. Schweiger
- Institute
of Molecular Biotechnology, Graz University
of Technology, NAWI Graz,
Petersgasse 14, 8010 Graz, Austria
| | - Robert Kourist
- Institute
of Molecular Biotechnology, Graz University
of Technology, NAWI Graz,
Petersgasse 14, 8010 Graz, Austria
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10
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Sheng X, Kazemi M, Planas F, Himo F. Modeling Enzymatic Enantioselectivity using Quantum Chemical Methodology. ACS Catal 2020. [DOI: 10.1021/acscatal.0c00983] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Xiang Sheng
- Department of Organic Chemistry, Arrhenius Laboratory, Stockholm University, Stockholm SE-106 91, Sweden
| | - Masoud Kazemi
- Department of Organic Chemistry, Arrhenius Laboratory, Stockholm University, Stockholm SE-106 91, Sweden
| | - Ferran Planas
- Department of Organic Chemistry, Arrhenius Laboratory, Stockholm University, Stockholm SE-106 91, Sweden
| | - Fahmi Himo
- Department of Organic Chemistry, Arrhenius Laboratory, Stockholm University, Stockholm SE-106 91, Sweden
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11
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Hu D, Zong XC, Xue F, Li C, Hu BC, Wu MC. Manipulating regioselectivity of an epoxide hydrolase for single enzymatic synthesis of (R)-1,2-diols from racemic epoxides. Chem Commun (Camb) 2020; 56:2799-2802. [DOI: 10.1039/d0cc00283f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
Both the activity and regioselectivity of Phaseolus vulgaris epoxide hydrolase were remarkably improved via reshaping two substrate tunnels based on rational design.
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Affiliation(s)
- Die Hu
- Wuxi School of Medicine, Jiangnan University
- Wuxi
- China
| | - Xun-Cheng Zong
- Key Laboratory of Carbohydrate Chemistry and Biotechnology
- Ministry of Education
- School of Biotechnology
- Jiangnan University
- Wuxi
| | - Feng Xue
- School of Marine and Bioengineering
- Yancheng Institute of Technology
- Yancheng 224051
- China
| | - Chuang Li
- Key Laboratory of Carbohydrate Chemistry and Biotechnology
- Ministry of Education
- School of Biotechnology
- Jiangnan University
- Wuxi
| | - Bo-Chun Hu
- Key Laboratory of Carbohydrate Chemistry and Biotechnology
- Ministry of Education
- School of Biotechnology
- Jiangnan University
- Wuxi
| | - Min-Chen Wu
- Wuxi School of Medicine, Jiangnan University
- Wuxi
- China
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12
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Li C, Zhao J, Hu D, Hu BC, Wang R, Zang J, Wu MC. Multiple site-directed mutagenesis of a Phaseolus vulgaris epoxide hydrolase to improve its catalytic performance towards p-chlorostyrene oxide based on the computer-aided re-design. Int J Biol Macromol 2019; 121:326-332. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2018.10.030] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/12/2018] [Revised: 08/25/2018] [Accepted: 10/08/2018] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
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13
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Mitusińska K, Magdziarz T, Bzówka M, Stańczak A, Gora A. Exploring Solanum tuberosum Epoxide Hydrolase Internal Architecture by Water Molecules Tracking. Biomolecules 2018; 8:biom8040143. [PMID: 30424576 PMCID: PMC6315908 DOI: 10.3390/biom8040143] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/17/2018] [Revised: 11/05/2018] [Accepted: 11/08/2018] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Several different approaches are used to describe the role of protein compartments and residues in catalysis and to identify key residues suitable for the modification of the activity or selectivity of the desired enzyme. In our research, we applied a combination of molecular dynamics simulations and a water tracking approach to describe the water accessible volume of Solanum tuberosum epoxide hydrolase. Using water as a molecular probe, we were able to identify small cavities linked with the active site: (i) one made up of conserved amino acids and indispensable for the proper positioning of catalytic water and (ii) two others in which modification can potentially contribute to enzyme selectivity and activity. Additionally, we identified regions suitable for de novo tunnel design that could also modify the catalytic properties of the enzyme. The identified hot-spots extend the list of the previously targeted residues used for modification of the regioselectivity of the enzyme. Finally, we have provided an example of a simple and elegant process for the detailed description of the network of cavities and tunnels, which can be used in the planning of enzyme modifications and can be easily adapted to the study of any other protein.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karolina Mitusińska
- Tunneling Group, Biotechnology Centre, Silesian University of Technology, ul. Krzywoustego 8, 44-100 Gliwice, Poland.
- Faculty of Chemistry, Silesian University of Technology, ks. Marcina Strzody 9, 44-100 Gliwice, Poland.
| | - Tomasz Magdziarz
- Tunneling Group, Biotechnology Centre, Silesian University of Technology, ul. Krzywoustego 8, 44-100 Gliwice, Poland.
| | - Maria Bzówka
- Tunneling Group, Biotechnology Centre, Silesian University of Technology, ul. Krzywoustego 8, 44-100 Gliwice, Poland.
- Faculty of Chemistry, Silesian University of Technology, ks. Marcina Strzody 9, 44-100 Gliwice, Poland.
| | - Agnieszka Stańczak
- Tunneling Group, Biotechnology Centre, Silesian University of Technology, ul. Krzywoustego 8, 44-100 Gliwice, Poland.
- Faculty of Chemistry, Silesian University of Technology, ks. Marcina Strzody 9, 44-100 Gliwice, Poland.
| | - Artur Gora
- Tunneling Group, Biotechnology Centre, Silesian University of Technology, ul. Krzywoustego 8, 44-100 Gliwice, Poland.
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14
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Li FL, Kong XD, Chen Q, Zheng YC, Xu Q, Chen FF, Fan LQ, Lin GQ, Zhou J, Yu HL, Xu JH. Regioselectivity Engineering of Epoxide Hydrolase: Near-Perfect Enantioconvergence through a Single Site Mutation. ACS Catal 2018. [DOI: 10.1021/acscatal.8b02622] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Fu-Long Li
- State Key Laboratory of Bioreactor Engineering, Shanghai Collaborative Innovation Center for Biomanufacturing Technology, East China University of Science and Technology, Shanghai 200237, China
| | - Xu-Dong Kong
- State Key Laboratory of Bioreactor Engineering, Shanghai Collaborative Innovation Center for Biomanufacturing Technology, East China University of Science and Technology, Shanghai 200237, China
- Center for Excellence in Molecular Synthesis, Shanghai Institute of Organic Chemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai 200032, China
| | - Qi Chen
- State Key Laboratory of Bioreactor Engineering, Shanghai Collaborative Innovation Center for Biomanufacturing Technology, East China University of Science and Technology, Shanghai 200237, China
| | - Yu-Cong Zheng
- State Key Laboratory of Bioreactor Engineering, Shanghai Collaborative Innovation Center for Biomanufacturing Technology, East China University of Science and Technology, Shanghai 200237, China
| | - Qin Xu
- State Key Laboratory of Microbial Metabolism, and School of Life Sciences and Biotechnology, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200240, China
| | - Fei-Fei Chen
- State Key Laboratory of Bioreactor Engineering, Shanghai Collaborative Innovation Center for Biomanufacturing Technology, East China University of Science and Technology, Shanghai 200237, China
| | - Li-Qiang Fan
- State Key Laboratory of Bioreactor Engineering, Shanghai Collaborative Innovation Center for Biomanufacturing Technology, East China University of Science and Technology, Shanghai 200237, China
| | - Guo-Qiang Lin
- Center for Excellence in Molecular Synthesis, Shanghai Institute of Organic Chemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai 200032, China
| | - Jiahai Zhou
- Center for Excellence in Molecular Synthesis, Shanghai Institute of Organic Chemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai 200032, China
| | - Hui-Lei Yu
- State Key Laboratory of Bioreactor Engineering, Shanghai Collaborative Innovation Center for Biomanufacturing Technology, East China University of Science and Technology, Shanghai 200237, China
| | - Jian-He Xu
- State Key Laboratory of Bioreactor Engineering, Shanghai Collaborative Innovation Center for Biomanufacturing Technology, East China University of Science and Technology, Shanghai 200237, China
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15
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Rinaldi S, Van der Kamp MW, Ranaghan KE, Mulholland AJ, Colombo G. Understanding Complex Mechanisms of Enzyme Reactivity: The Case of Limonene-1,2-Epoxide Hydrolases. ACS Catal 2018. [DOI: 10.1021/acscatal.8b00863] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Silvia Rinaldi
- Istituto di Chimica del Riconoscimento Molecolare, C.N.R., Via Mario Bianco 9, 20131 Milano, Italy
| | - Marc W. Van der Kamp
- Centre for Computational Chemistry, School of Chemistry, University of Bristol, Cantock’s Close, Bristol BS8 1TS, United Kingdom
- School of Biochemistry, University of Bristol, University Walk, Bristol BS8 1TD, United Kingdom
| | - Kara E. Ranaghan
- Centre for Computational Chemistry, School of Chemistry, University of Bristol, Cantock’s Close, Bristol BS8 1TS, United Kingdom
| | - Adrian J. Mulholland
- Centre for Computational Chemistry, School of Chemistry, University of Bristol, Cantock’s Close, Bristol BS8 1TS, United Kingdom
| | - Giorgio Colombo
- Istituto di Chimica del Riconoscimento Molecolare, C.N.R., Via Mario Bianco 9, 20131 Milano, Italy
- Dipartimento di Chimica, Università degli Studi di Pavia, Via Taramelli 12, 27100 Pavia, Italy
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16
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Janfalk Carlsson Å, Bauer P, Dobritzsch D, Kamerlin SCL, Widersten M. Epoxide hydrolysis as a model system for understanding flux through a branched reaction scheme. IUCRJ 2018; 5:269-282. [PMID: 29755743 PMCID: PMC5929373 DOI: 10.1107/s2052252518003573] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/19/2017] [Accepted: 03/01/2018] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
The epoxide hydrolase StEH1 catalyzes the hydrolysis of trans-methylstyrene oxide to 1-phenyl-propane-1,2-diol. The (S,S)-epoxide is exclusively transformed into the (1R,2S)-diol, while hydrolysis of the (R,R)-epoxide results in a mixture of product enantiomers. In order to understand the differences in the stereoconfigurations of the products, the reactions were studied kinetically during both the pre-steady-state and steady-state phases. A number of closely related StEH1 variants were analyzed in parallel, and the results were rationalized by structure-activity analysis using the available crystal structures of all tested enzyme variants. Finally, empirical valence-bond simulations were performed in order to provide additional insight into the observed kinetic behaviour and ratios of the diol product enantiomers. These combined data allow us to present a model for the flux through the catalyzed reactions. With the (R,R)-epoxide, ring opening may occur at either C atom and with similar energy barriers for hydrolysis, resulting in a mixture of diol enantiomer products. However, with the (S,S)-epoxide, although either epoxide C atom may react to form the covalent enzyme intermediate, only the pro-(R,S) alkylenzyme is amenable to subsequent hydrolysis. Previously contradictory observations from kinetics experiments as well as product ratios can therefore now be explained for this biocatalytically relevant enzyme.
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Affiliation(s)
- Åsa Janfalk Carlsson
- Department of Chemistry, BMC, Uppsala University, Box 576, 751 23 Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Paul Bauer
- Science for Life Laboratory, Department of Cell and Molecular Biology, Uppsala University, BMC Box 596, 751 24 Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Doreen Dobritzsch
- Department of Chemistry, BMC, Uppsala University, Box 576, 751 23 Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Shina C. L. Kamerlin
- Science for Life Laboratory, Department of Cell and Molecular Biology, Uppsala University, BMC Box 596, 751 24 Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Mikael Widersten
- Department of Chemistry, BMC, Uppsala University, Box 576, 751 23 Uppsala, Sweden
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17
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Serrano-Hervás E, Garcia-Borràs M, Osuna S. Exploring the origins of selectivity in soluble epoxide hydrolase from Bacillus megaterium. Org Biomol Chem 2018; 15:8827-8835. [PMID: 29026902 PMCID: PMC5708342 DOI: 10.1039/c7ob01847a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Epoxide hydrolase (EH) enzymes catalyze the hydration of racemic epoxides to yield their corresponding vicinal diols. In this work, the Bacillus megaterium epoxide hydrolase (BmEH)-mediated hydrolysis of racemic styrene oxide (rac-SO) and its para-nitro styrene oxide (rac-p-NSO) derivative are computationally investigated using density functional theory (DFT).
Epoxide hydrolase (EH) enzymes catalyze the hydration of racemic epoxides to yield their corresponding vicinal diols. These enzymes present different enantio- and regioselectivity depending upon either the substrate structure or the substitution pattern of the epoxide ring. In this study, we computationally investigate the Bacillus megaterium epoxide hydrolase (BmEH)-mediated hydrolysis of racemic styrene oxide (rac-SO) and its para-nitro styrene oxide (rac-p-NSO) derivative using density functional theory (DFT) and an active site cluster model consisting of 195 and 197 atoms, respectively. Full reaction mechanisms for epoxide ring opening were evaluated considering the attack at both oxirane carbons and considering two possible orientations of the substrate at the BmEH active site. Our results indicate that for both SO and p-NSO substrates the BmEH enantio- and regioselectivity is opposite to the inherent (R)-BmEH selectivity, the attack at the benzylic position (C1) of the (S)-enantiomer being the most favoured chemical outcome.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eila Serrano-Hervás
- Institut de Química Computacional i Catàlisi (IQCC) and Departament de Química, Universitat de Girona, Carrer Maria Aurèlia Capmany 69, 17003 Girona, Spain.
| | - Marc Garcia-Borràs
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of California, Los Angeles, 607 Charles E. Young Drive East, Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA.
| | - Sílvia Osuna
- Institut de Química Computacional i Catàlisi (IQCC) and Departament de Química, Universitat de Girona, Carrer Maria Aurèlia Capmany 69, 17003 Girona, Spain.
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18
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Zaugg J, Gumulya Y, Bodén M, Mark AE, Malde AK. Effect of Binding on Enantioselectivity of Epoxide Hydrolase. J Chem Inf Model 2018; 58:630-640. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.jcim.7b00353] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Julian Zaugg
- School of Chemistry and Molecular Biosciences, University of Queensland, 4072 Brisbane, Australia
| | - Yosephine Gumulya
- School of Chemistry and Molecular Biosciences, University of Queensland, 4072 Brisbane, Australia
| | - Mikael Bodén
- School of Chemistry and Molecular Biosciences, University of Queensland, 4072 Brisbane, Australia
- Institute for Molecular Bioscience, University of Queensland, 4072 Brisbane, Australia
| | - Alan E. Mark
- School of Chemistry and Molecular Biosciences, University of Queensland, 4072 Brisbane, Australia
- Institute for Molecular Bioscience, University of Queensland, 4072 Brisbane, Australia
| | - Alpeshkumar K. Malde
- School of Chemistry and Molecular Biosciences, University of Queensland, 4072 Brisbane, Australia
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19
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Hvorecny KL, Bahl CD, Kitamura S, Lee KSS, Hammock BD, Morisseau C, Madden DR. Active-Site Flexibility and Substrate Specificity in a Bacterial Virulence Factor: Crystallographic Snapshots of an Epoxide Hydrolase. Structure 2017; 25:697-707.e4. [PMID: 28392259 DOI: 10.1016/j.str.2017.03.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2016] [Revised: 02/20/2017] [Accepted: 03/09/2017] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Pseudomonas aeruginosa secretes an epoxide hydrolase with catalytic activity that triggers degradation of the cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTR) and perturbs other host defense networks. Targets of this CFTR inhibitory factor (Cif) are largely unknown, but include an epoxy-fatty acid. In this class of signaling molecules, chirality can be an important determinant of physiological output and potency. Here we explore the active-site chemistry of this two-step α/β-hydrolase and its implications for an emerging class of virulence enzymes. In combination with hydrolysis data, crystal structures of 15 trapped hydroxyalkyl-enzyme intermediates reveal the stereochemical basis of Cif's substrate specificity, as well as its regioisomeric and enantiomeric preferences. The structures also reveal distinct sets of conformational changes that enable the active site to expand dramatically in two directions, accommodating a surprising array of potential physiological epoxide targets. These new substrates may contribute to Cif's diverse effects in vivo, and thus to the success of P. aeruginosa and other pathogens during infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kelli L Hvorecny
- Department of Biochemistry and Cell Biology, Geisel School of Medicine, Dartmouth College, Hanover, NH 03755, USA
| | - Christopher D Bahl
- Department of Biochemistry and Cell Biology, Geisel School of Medicine, Dartmouth College, Hanover, NH 03755, USA
| | - Seiya Kitamura
- Department of Entomology and Nematology, UC Davis Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of California at Davis, Davis, CA 95616, USA
| | - Kin Sing Stephen Lee
- Department of Entomology and Nematology, UC Davis Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of California at Davis, Davis, CA 95616, USA
| | - Bruce D Hammock
- Department of Entomology and Nematology, UC Davis Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of California at Davis, Davis, CA 95616, USA
| | - Christophe Morisseau
- Department of Entomology and Nematology, UC Davis Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of California at Davis, Davis, CA 95616, USA
| | - Dean R Madden
- Department of Biochemistry and Cell Biology, Geisel School of Medicine, Dartmouth College, Hanover, NH 03755, USA.
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20
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Amrein BA, Steffen-Munsberg F, Szeler I, Purg M, Kulkarni Y, Kamerlin SCL. CADEE: Computer-Aided Directed Evolution of Enzymes. IUCRJ 2017; 4:50-64. [PMID: 28250941 PMCID: PMC5331465 DOI: 10.1107/s2052252516018017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/12/2016] [Accepted: 11/09/2016] [Indexed: 05/10/2023]
Abstract
The tremendous interest in enzymes as biocatalysts has led to extensive work in enzyme engineering, as well as associated methodology development. Here, a new framework for computer-aided directed evolution of enzymes (CADEE) is presented which allows a drastic reduction in the time necessary to prepare and analyze in silico semi-automated directed evolution of enzymes. A pedagogical example of the application of CADEE to a real biological system is also presented in order to illustrate the CADEE workflow.
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Affiliation(s)
- Beat Anton Amrein
- Science for Life Laboratory, Department of Cell and Molecular Biology, Uppsala University, BMC Box 596, S-751 24 Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Fabian Steffen-Munsberg
- Science for Life Laboratory, Department of Cell and Molecular Biology, Uppsala University, BMC Box 596, S-751 24 Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Ireneusz Szeler
- Science for Life Laboratory, Department of Cell and Molecular Biology, Uppsala University, BMC Box 596, S-751 24 Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Miha Purg
- Science for Life Laboratory, Department of Cell and Molecular Biology, Uppsala University, BMC Box 596, S-751 24 Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Yashraj Kulkarni
- Science for Life Laboratory, Department of Cell and Molecular Biology, Uppsala University, BMC Box 596, S-751 24 Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Shina Caroline Lynn Kamerlin
- Science for Life Laboratory, Department of Cell and Molecular Biology, Uppsala University, BMC Box 596, S-751 24 Uppsala, Sweden
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21
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Lind MES, Himo F. Quantum Chemical Modeling of Enantioconvergency in Soluble Epoxide Hydrolase. ACS Catal 2016. [DOI: 10.1021/acscatal.6b01562] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Maria E. S. Lind
- Department of Organic Chemistry,
Arrhenius Laboratory, Stockholm University, SE-10691 Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Fahmi Himo
- Department of Organic Chemistry,
Arrhenius Laboratory, Stockholm University, SE-10691 Stockholm, Sweden
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22
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Janfalk Carlsson Å, Bauer P, Dobritzsch D, Nilsson M, Kamerlin SCL, Widersten M. Laboratory-Evolved Enzymes Provide Snapshots of the Development of Enantioconvergence in Enzyme-Catalyzed Epoxide Hydrolysis. Chembiochem 2016; 17:1693-7. [PMID: 27383542 PMCID: PMC5096066 DOI: 10.1002/cbic.201600330] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/09/2016] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
Engineered enzyme variants of potato epoxide hydrolase (StEH1) display varying degrees of enrichment of (2R)‐3‐phenylpropane‐1,2‐diol from racemic benzyloxirane. Curiously, the observed increase in the enantiomeric excess of the (R)‐diol is not only a consequence of changes in enantioselectivity for the preferred epoxide enantiomer, but also to changes in the regioselectivity of the epoxide ring opening of (S)‐benzyloxirane. In order to probe the structural origin of these differences in substrate selectivity and catalytic regiopreference, we solved the crystal structures for the evolved StEH1 variants. We used these structures as a starting point for molecular docking studies of the epoxide enantiomers into the respective active sites. Interestingly, despite the simplicity of our docking analysis, the apparent preferred binding modes appear to rationalize the experimentally determined regioselectivities. The analysis also identifies an active site residue (F33) as a potentially important interaction partner, a role that could explain the high conservation of this residue during evolution. Overall, our experimental, structural, and computational studies provide snapshots into the evolution of enantioconvergence in StEH1‐catalyzed epoxide hydrolysis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Åsa Janfalk Carlsson
- Department of Chemistry, BMC, Uppsala University, Box 576, 751 23, Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Paul Bauer
- Department of Cell and Molecular Biology, Uppsala University, Box 596, 751 24, Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Doreen Dobritzsch
- Department of Chemistry, BMC, Uppsala University, Box 576, 751 23, Uppsala, Sweden.
| | - Mikael Nilsson
- Department of Chemistry, BMC, Uppsala University, Box 576, 751 23, Uppsala, Sweden
| | - S C Lynn Kamerlin
- Department of Cell and Molecular Biology, Uppsala University, Box 596, 751 24, Uppsala, Sweden.
| | - Mikael Widersten
- Department of Chemistry, BMC, Uppsala University, Box 576, 751 23, Uppsala, Sweden.
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