Unlocking same-sign CPL: solvent effects on spectral form and racemisation kinetics in nine-coordinate chiral europium(III) complexes

Understanding the factors that shape the circularly polarised luminescence (CPL) emission profiles of europium(III)-based CPL emitters to have specific sign properties, e. g. monosignate individual CPL transitions, is key to design novel complexes for applications ranging from advanced security inks to bio-probes for live cell imaging. In order to correlate structure and spectral characteristics, a photophysical and kinetic investigation has been conducted on a series of coordinatively saturated nine-coordinate europium(III) systems based on 1,4,7-triazacyclononane. We highlight that lanthanide emission is sensitive to changes in the ligand field by showing the linear dependence of total emission intensity ratios as a function of solvent polarity, for europium(III) complexes displaying an internal charge transfer (ICT) excited state. This sensitivity increases by a factor of 20 when studying changes in CPL spectra, rendering these complexes accurate probes of local polarity. Solvent polarity, solvent-specific effects, and the nature of the chromophores' coordinating donor atoms strongly influence the kinetic stability of europium(III) complexes with respect to enantiomer interconversion. Notably, we show that the choice of donor groups to coordinating to europium(III) and the nature and polarity of the solvent affects the rate of racemisation, leading to systems with very long half-lives at room temperature in non-polar media.

Dual visible and near-infrared luminescence in mononuclear macrocyclic erbium(III) complexes via ligand and metal centred excitation

Considering the structural design of some of the scarce molecular-based Er-centred emitters in the literature, we explored the optical properties of three Er^III hexaazamacrocyclic complexes, namely Er-EDA (1), Er-OPDA(2) and Er-DAP(3). The macrocyclic ligands in these complexes differ in the lateral spacers, and are derived from 2,6-pyridine-dicarbaldehyde and ethylenediamine (EDA), ortho-phenylenediamine (OPDA) or 1,3-diaminopropane (DAP). Upon ligand-centred excitation, the bluish-green and green emissions of the Er^III ion were detected only for the complexes containing macrocycles with aliphatic spacers (1 and 3), which evidenced that these ligands can sensitize the Er^III luminescence. On the other hand, the ligand derived from the aromatic diamine (2) does not sensitize the Er^III luminescence. Energy transfer mechanisms, temperature sensing, CIE coordinates and CCT values were analyzed. Besides the excitation in the ligands, the erbium-centred excitation at 980 nm allowed the detection, in all cases, of bluish-green, green and red up-converted emissions, and also the downshifted NIR emission. The possible mechanisms involved in these transitions were described and analyzed according to the available data.

The importance, status, and perspectives of hybrid lanthanide-doped upconversion nanothermometers for theranostics

Theranostics combines diagnostics and therapy in a single multifunctional system. Multifunctional upconversion luminescent lanthanide-doped nanothermometers for theranostic purposes offer non-invasive and sensitive multimodal performance in the biomedical field over traditional temperature measurement methods. Despite existing challenges, various studies on hybrid upconversion nanothermometers show substantial progress for (bio)imaging, temperature sensing, photodynamic and photothermal therapy, as well as drug delivery applications. The beauty of such an approach is that it unfolds possibilities to combine diagnostics and therapy in a single particle, which can modify the way certain diseases are treated, hence change the entire healthcare scene.

Tuning the photophysical properties of lanthanide(iii)/zinc(ii) ‘encapsulated sandwich’ metallacrowns emitting in the near-infrared range

A family of Zn₁₆Ln(HA)₁₆ metallacrowns (MCs; Ln = Yb^III, Er^III, and Nd^III; HA = picoline- (picHA²⁻), pyrazine- (pyzHA²⁻), and quinaldine- (quinHA²⁻) hydroximates) with an ‘encapsulated sandwich’ structure possesses outstanding luminescence properties in the near-infrared (NIR) and suitability for cell imaging. Here, to decipher which parameters affect their functional and photophysical properties and how the nature of the hydroximate ligands can allow their fine tuning, we have completed this Zn₁₆Ln(HA)₁₆ family by synthesizing MCs with two new ligands, naphthyridine- (napHA²⁻) and quinoxaline- (quinoHA²⁻) hydroximates. Zn₁₆Ln(napHA)₁₆ and Zn₁₆Ln(quinoHA)₁₆ exhibit absorption bands extended into the visible range and efficiently sensitize the NIR emissions of Yb^III, Er^III, and Nd^III upon excitation up to 630 nm. The energies of the lowest singlet (S₁), triplet (T₁) and intra-ligand charge transfer (ILCT) states have been determined. Ln^III-centered total (Q^L_Ln) and intrinsic (Q^Ln_Ln) quantum yields, sensitization efficiencies (η_sens), observed (τ_obs) and radiative (τ_rad) luminescence lifetimes have been recorded and analyzed in the solid state and in CH₃OH and CD₃OD solutions for all Zn₁₆Ln(HA)₁₆. We found that, within the Zn₁₆Ln(HA)₁₆ family, τ_rad values are not constant for a particular Ln^III. The close in energy positions of T₁ and ILCT states in Zn₁₆Ln(picHA)₁₆ and Zn₁₆Ln(quinHA)₁₆ are preferred for the sensitization of Ln^III NIR emission and η_sens values reach 100% for Nd^III. Finally, the highest values of Q^L_Ln are observed for Zn₁₆Ln(quinHA)₁₆ in the solid state or in CD₃OD solutions. With these data at hand, we are now capable of creating MCs with desired properties suitable for NIR optical imaging.

We have created a family of ‘encapsulated sandwich’ Zn₁₆Ln(HA)₁₆ metallacrowns and by detailed quantitative analysis demonstrated how the nature of the hydroximate ligand impacts photophysical properties of these complexes.

Charging and ultralong phosphorescence of lanthanide facilitated organic complex

Emission from the triplet state of an organo-lanthanide complex is observed only when the energy transfer to the lanthanide ion is absent. The triplet state lifetime under cryogenic conditions for organo-lanthanide compounds usually ranges up to tens of milliseconds. The compound LaL1(TTA)₃ reported herein exhibits 77 K phosphorescence observable by the naked eye for up to 30 s. Optical spectroscopy, density functional theory (DFT) and time-dependent DFT techniques have been applied to investigate the photophysical processes of this compound. In particular, on-off continuous irradiation cycles reveal a charging behaviour of the emission which is associated with triplet-triplet absorption because it shows a shorter rise lifetime than the corresponding decay lifetime and it varies with illumination intensity. The discovery of the behaviour of this compound provides insight into important photophysical processes of the triplet state of organo-lanthanide systems and may open new fields of application such as data encryption, anti-counterfeiting and temperature switching.

Compounds featuring long-lived luminescence have potential applications in a variety of fields, including anti-counterfeiting and switches. Here the authors report a lanthanide-based compound that exhibits phosphorescence observable by the naked eye for up to 30 s at 77 K; On-off continuous irradiation cycles reveal a charging behaviour associated with triplet-triplet absorption, showing a shorter rise lifetime than the decay lifetime.

Striking solvent dependence of total emission and circularly polarised luminescence in coordinatively saturated chiral europium complexes: solvation significantly perturbs the ligand field

Examination of total emission and circularly polarised luminescence (CPL) spectra of three 9-coordinate Eu(iii) complexes with well-defined speciation shows that the ligand fields of these C3 symmetric complexes are extremely sensitive to solvent polarity, even when solvent is not present in the first coordination sphere. The energies, intensities, and (for CPL) the sign of some transitions vary with solvent polarity. These observations are rationalised by analysis of the factors that control total and circularly polarised emission, and have important implications for design of responsive luminescent Ln(iii) probes.

Exciton diffusion in solid solutions of luminescent lanthanide β-diketonates

In this article, a series of luminescent lanthanide β-diketonate solid solutions, with the formula of TBAEuxM1-x(TTA)4 (TBA = tetrabutylammonium; M = La or Gd; TTA = 2-thenoyltrifluoroacetonate), are synthesized by co-precipitation. In the solid solutions, the emission efficiency of Eu3+ is significantly increased with the presence of non-luminescent chelates TBALa(TTA)4 and TBAGd(TTA)4. Low temperature luminescence spectroscopy studies indicate that the TTA- ligands in these non-luminescent chelates do emit phosphorescence with long lifetime. However, the ligand phosphorescence is strongly quenched in solid solutions with the luminescent chelate TBAEu(TTA)4, providing strong evidence for intermolecular energy transfer through the triplet excited states of the ligands. A quantitative analysis of Eu3+ emission enhancement and TTA- phosphorescence quenching reveals that each Eu3+ center may receive excitation energy from about 30 TTA- ligands, suggesting that the excitation energy has become exciton-like in the solid solutions. Based on the crystallography analysis of TBALn(TTA)4, it is discovered that TTA- ligands in neighboring Ln(TTA)4- units may form π-π stacks with intermolecular distance ≤3.5 Å, thus enabling efficient triplet exciton diffusion via exchange interaction.

Terpyridine-Functionalized Calixarenes: Synthesis, Characterization and Anion Sensing Applications

Lanthanide complexes have been developed and are reported herein. These complexes were derived from a terpyridine-functionalized calix[4]arene ligand, chelated with Tb3+ and Eu3+. Synthesis of these complexes was achieved in two steps from a calix[4]arene derivative: (1) amide coupling of a calix[4]arene bearing carboxylic acid functionalities and (2) metallation with a lanthanide triflate salt. The ligand and its complexes were characterized by NMR (1H and 13C), fluorescence and UV-vis spectroscopy as well as MS. The photophysical properties of these complexes were studied; high molar absorptivity values, modest quantum yields and luminescence lifetimes on the ms timescale were obtained. Anion binding results in a change in the photophysical properties of the complexes. The anion sensing ability of the Tb(III) complex was evaluated via visual detection, UV-vis and fluorescence studies. The sensor was found to be responsive towards a variety of anions, and large binding constants were obtained for the coordination of anions to the sensor.

Development, characterisation and in vitro evaluation of lanthanide-based FPR2/ALX-targeted imaging probes

We report the design, preparation and characterisation of three small-molecule, Formyl Peptide Receptor (FPR)-targeted lanthanide complexes (Tb·14, Eu·14 and Gd·14). Long-lived, metal-based emission was observed from the terbium complex (τH2O = 1.9 ms), whereas only negligible lanthanide signals were detected in the europium analogue. Ligand-centred emission was investigated using Gd·14 at room temperature and 77 K, leading to the postulation that metal emission may be sensitised via a ligand-based charge transfer state of the targeting Quin C1 unit. Comparatively high longitudinal relaxivity values (r1) for octadentate metal complexes of Gd·14 were determined (6.9 mM-1 s-1 at 400 MHz and 294 K), which could be a result of a relative increase in twisted square antiprism (TSAP) isomer prevalence compared to typical DOTA constructs (as evidenced by NMR spectroscopy). In vitro validation of concentration responses of Tb·14via three key neutrophil functional assays demonstrated that the inflammatory responses of neutrophils (i.e. chemotaxis, transmigration and granular release) remained unchanged in the presence of specific concentrations of the compound. Using a time-resolved microscopy set-up we were able to observe binding of the Tb·14 probe to stimulated human neutrophils around the cell periphery, while in the same experiment with un-activated neutrophils, no metal-based signals were detected. Our results demonstrate the utility of Tb·14 for time-resolved microscopy with lifetimes several orders of magnitude longer than autofluorescent signals and a preferential uptake in stimulated neutrophils.

Visible light sensitized near-infrared luminescence of ytterbium via ILCT states in quadruple-stranded helicates

Quadruple-stranded helicates show visible light sensitized near-infrared luminescence of ytterbium via ILCT states.

Selectively switching on europium emission in drug site one of human serum albumin

A luminescent europium probe has been discovered that binds selectively to drug-site I in human serum albumin, signalled by a ‘switching on’ of europium emission, and accompanied by strong induced circularly polarised luminescence.