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Utami R, Tran MH, Lee EY. Mini-review on lignin-based self-healing polymer. Int J Biol Macromol 2024:135295. [PMID: 39233153 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2024.135295] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2024] [Revised: 08/23/2024] [Accepted: 09/01/2024] [Indexed: 09/06/2024]
Abstract
Lignin, a biopolymer derived from plant biomass, is recognized as a highly promising substance for developing self-healing polymers owing to its dynamic linkages and functional groups. This paper provides a thorough review of lignin-based self-healing polymer, from the process of extracting lignin, chemical modification, synthesis techniques such as via reversible addition-fragmentation chain transfer (RAFT) polymerization, crosslinking with polymers like polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) and chitosan, and reactions with isocyanates to create lignin-based networks with reversible interactions. This work also summarizes the optimization of self-healing ability, such as including dynamic copolymers, encapsulating healing agents like dicyclopentadiene and polycaprolactone (PCL), and chain extenders with disulfide or Diels-Alder (DA) moieties. The material's characterization focuses on its capacity to recover via hydrogen bonding and dynamic re-associations, improved mechanical properties from lignin's rigid structure, and enhanced temperature resistance. Primary obstacles involve the optimization of lignin extraction, enhancement of polymer compatibility, and the establishment of efficient procedures for synthesis and characterization. Overall, lignin shows great potential as a renewable component of self-healing polymers, with plenty of opportunities for further development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rizki Utami
- Department of Chemical Engineering (BK21 FOUR Integrated Engineering Program), College of Engineering, Kyung Hee University, Yongin-si, Gyeonggi-do 17104, Republic of Korea
| | - My Ha Tran
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, National University of Singapore, 4 Engineering Drive 4, Singapore 117585, Singapore
| | - Eun Yeol Lee
- Department of Chemical Engineering (BK21 FOUR Integrated Engineering Program), College of Engineering, Kyung Hee University, Yongin-si, Gyeonggi-do 17104, Republic of Korea.
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2
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Annamraju A, Rajan K, Zuo X, Long BK, Pingali SV, Elder TJ, Labbé N. Atomic Level Interactions and Suprastructural Configuration of Plant Cell Wall Polymers in Dialkylimidazolium Ionic Liquids. Biomacromolecules 2023; 24:2164-2172. [PMID: 36977326 DOI: 10.1021/acs.biomac.3c00047] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/30/2023]
Abstract
Ionic liquids (ILs) have been widely investigated for the pretreatment and deconstruction of lignocellulosic feedstocks. However, the modes of interaction between IL-anions and cations, and plant cell wall polymers, namely, cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin, as well as the resulting ultrastructural changes are still unclear. In this study, we investigated the atomic level and suprastructural interactions of microcrystalline cellulose, birchwood xylan, and organosolv lignin with 1,3-dialkylimidazolium ILs having varying sizes of carboxylate anions. Analysis by 13C NMR spectroscopy indicated that cellulose and lignin exhibited stronger hydrogen bonding with acetate ions than with formate ions, as evidenced by greater chemical shift changes. Small-angle X-ray scattering analysis showed that while both cellulose and xylan adopted a single-stranded conformation in acetate-ILs, twice as many acetate ions were bound to one anhydroglucose unit than to an anhydroxylose unit. We also determined that a minimum of seven representative carbohydrate units must interact with an anion for that IL to effectively dissolve cellulose or xylan. Lignin is associated as groups of four polymer molecules in formate-ILs and dispersed as single molecules in acetate-ILs, which indicates that it is highly soluble in the latter. In summary, our study demonstrated that 1,3-dialkylimidazolium acetates displayed stronger binding interactions with cellulose and lignin, as compared to formates, and thus have superior potential to fractionate these polymers from lignocellulosic feedstocks.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Xiaobing Zuo
- X-ray Science Division, Argonne National Laboratory, Lemont, Illinois 60439, United States
| | - Brian K Long
- Department of Chemistry, The University of Tennessee, Knoxville, Tennessee 37996, United States
| | | | - Thomas J Elder
- USDA-Forest Service, Southern Research Station, Auburn, Alabama 36849, United States
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Zuleta EC, Bozell JJ. Alkylation of monomeric, dimeric, and polymeric lignin models through carbon-hydrogen activation using Ru-catalyzed Murai reaction. Tetrahedron 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tet.2021.132475] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
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4
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Bostan L, Hosseinaei O, Fourné R, Herrmann AS. Upscaling of lignin precursor melt spinning by bicomponent spinning and its use for carbon fibre production. PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. SERIES A, MATHEMATICAL, PHYSICAL, AND ENGINEERING SCIENCES 2021; 379:20200334. [PMID: 34510930 DOI: 10.1098/rsta.2020.0334] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 02/18/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Upscaling lignin-based precursor fibre production is an essential step in developing bio-based carbon fibre from renewable feedstock. The main challenge in upscaling of lignin fibre production by melt spinning is its melt behaviour and rheological properties, which differ from common synthetic polymers used in melt spinning. Here, a new approach in melt spinning of lignin, using a spin carrier system for producing bicomponent fibres, has been introduced. An ethanol extracted lignin fraction from LignoBoost process of commercial softwood kraft black liquor was used as feedstock. After additional heat treatment, melt spinning was performed in a pilot-scale spinning unit. For the first time, biodegradable polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) was used as a spin carrier to enable the spinning of lignin by improving the required melt strength. PVA-sheath/lignin-core bicomponent fibres were manufactured. Afterwards, PVA was dissolved by washing with water. Pure lignin fibres were stabilized and carbonized, and tensile properties were measured. The measured properties, tensile modulus of 81.1 ± 3.1 GPa and tensile strength of 1039 ± 197 MPa, are higher than the majority of lignin-based carbon fibres reported in the literature. This new approach can significantly improve the melt spinning of lignin and solve problems related to poor spinnability of lignin and results in the production of high-quality lignin-based carbon fibres. This article is part of the theme issue 'Bio-derived and bioinspired sustainable advanced materials for emerging technologies (part 2)'.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lars Bostan
- Fibre and Material Development Department, Faserinstitut Bremen e.V, 28359 Bremen, Germany
| | - Omid Hosseinaei
- RISE Innventia AB, RISE Research Institutes of Sweden, 11486 Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Renate Fourné
- FOURNÉ Maschinenbau GmbH, 53347 Alfter-Impekoven, Germany
| | - Axel S Herrmann
- Fibre and Material Development Department, Faserinstitut Bremen e.V, 28359 Bremen, Germany
- Faculty of Production Engineering, University of Bremen, 28359 Bremen, Germany
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5
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Zijlstra DS, de Korte J, de Vries EPC, Hameleers L, Wilbers E, Jurak E, Deuss PJ. Highly Efficient Semi-Continuous Extraction and In-Line Purification of High β-O-4 Butanosolv Lignin. Front Chem 2021; 9:655983. [PMID: 34041222 PMCID: PMC8141753 DOI: 10.3389/fchem.2021.655983] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/19/2021] [Accepted: 04/21/2021] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Innovative biomass fractionation is of major importance for economically competitive biorefineries. Lignin is currently severely underutilized due to the use of high severity fractionation methodologies that yield complex condensed lignin that limits high-value applicability. Mild lignin fractionation conditions can lead to lignin with a more regular C-O bonded structure that has increased potential for higher value applications. Nevertheless, such extraction methodologies typically suffer from inadequate lignin extraction efficiencies and yield. (Semi)-continuous flow extractions are a promising method to achieve improved extraction efficiency of such C-O linked lignin. Here we show that optimized organosolv extraction in a flow-through setup resulted in 93-96% delignification of 40 g walnut shells (40 wt% lignin content) by applying mild organosolv extraction conditions with a 2 g/min flowrate of a 9:1 n-butanol/water mixture with 0.18 M H2SO4 at 120°C in 2.5 h. 85 wt% of the lignin (corrected for alcohol incorporation, moisture content and carbohydrate impurities) was isolated as a powder with a high retention of the β-aryl ether (β-O-4) content of 63 linking motifs per 100 C9 units. Close examination of the isolated lignin showed that the main carbohydrate contamination in the recovered lignin was butyl-xyloside and other butoxylate carbohydrates. The work-up and purification procedure were investigated and improved by the implementation of a caustic soda treatment step and phase separation with a continuous integrated mixer/separator (CINC). This led to a combined 75 wt% yield of the lignin in 3 separate fractions with 3% carbohydrate impurities and a very high β-O-4 content of 67 linking motifs per 100 C9 units. Analysis of all the mass flows showed that 98% of the carbohydrate content was removed with the inline purification step, which is a significant improvement to the 88% carbohydrate removal for the traditional lignin precipitation work-up procedure. Overall we show a convenient method for inline extraction and purification to obtain high β-O-4 butanosolv lignin in excellent yields.
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Affiliation(s)
- Douwe Sjirk Zijlstra
- Department of Chemical Engineering (ENTEG), University of Groningen, Groningen, Netherlands
| | - Joren de Korte
- Department of Chemical Engineering (ENTEG), University of Groningen, Groningen, Netherlands
| | - Ernst P. C. de Vries
- Department of Chemical Engineering (ENTEG), University of Groningen, Groningen, Netherlands
| | - Lisanne Hameleers
- Department of Bioproduct Engineering (ENTEG), University of Groningen, Groningen, Netherlands
| | - Erwin Wilbers
- Department of Chemical Engineering (ENTEG), University of Groningen, Groningen, Netherlands
| | - Edita Jurak
- Department of Bioproduct Engineering (ENTEG), University of Groningen, Groningen, Netherlands
| | - Peter Joseph Deuss
- Department of Chemical Engineering (ENTEG), University of Groningen, Groningen, Netherlands
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Wang X, Chen H, Feng X, Zhang Q, Labbé N, Kim K, Huang J, Ragauskas AJ, Wang S, Zhang Y. Isolation and characterization of lignocellulosic nanofibers from four kinds of organosolv-fractionated lignocellulosic materials. WOOD SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY 2020; 54:503-517. [PMID: 0 DOI: 10.1007/s00226-020-01167-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/22/2019] [Indexed: 05/20/2023]
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Efficient Mild Organosolv Lignin Extraction in a Flow-Through Setup Yielding Lignin with High β-O-4 Content. Polymers (Basel) 2019; 11:polym11121913. [PMID: 31757013 PMCID: PMC6960700 DOI: 10.3390/polym11121913] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/17/2019] [Revised: 11/07/2019] [Accepted: 11/16/2019] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Current lignin fractionation methods use harsh conditions that alter the native lignin structure, resulting in a recalcitrant material which is undesired for downstream processing. Milder fractionation processes allow for the isolation of lignins that are high in β-aryl ether (β-O-4) content, however, at reduced extraction efficiency. The development of improved lignin extraction methods using mild conditions is therefore desired. For this reason, a flow-through setup for mild ethanosolv extraction (120 °C) was developed. The influence of acid concentration, ethanol/water ratio, and the use of other linear alcohol co-solvents on the delignification efficiency and the β-O-4 content were evaluated. With walnut shells as model feedstock, extraction efficiencies of over 55% were achieved, yielding lignin with a good structural quality in terms of β-O-4 linking motifs (typically over 60 per 100 aromatic units). For example, lignin containing 66 β-O-4 linking motifs was obtained with an 80:20 n-propanol/water ratio, 0.18 M H2SO4 with overall a good extraction efficiency of 57% after 5 h. The majority of the lignin was extracted in the first 2 hours and this lignin showed the best structural quality. Compared to batch extractions, both higher lignin extraction efficiency and higher β-O-4 content were obtained using the flow setup.
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8
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Steric effects of bulky tethered arylpiperazines on the reactivity of Co-Schiff base oxidation catalysts—a synthetic and computational study. Tetrahedron 2019. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tet.2019.04.059] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
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Woo HL, Hazen TC. Enrichment of Bacteria From Eastern Mediterranean Sea Involved in Lignin Degradation via the Phenylacetyl-CoA Pathway. Front Microbiol 2018; 9:922. [PMID: 29867833 PMCID: PMC5954211 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2018.00922] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/14/2017] [Accepted: 04/20/2018] [Indexed: 02/01/2023] Open
Abstract
The degradation of allochthonous terrestrial organic matter, such as recalcitrant lignin and hemicellulose from plants, occurs in the ocean. We hypothesize that bacteria instead of white-rot fungi, the model organisms of aerobic lignin degradation within terrestrial environments, are responsible for lignin degradation in the ocean due to the ocean's oligotrophy and hypersalinity. Warm oxic seawater from the Eastern Mediterranean Sea was enriched on lignin in laboratory microcosms. Lignin mineralization rates by the lignin-adapted consortia improved after two sequential incubations. Shotgun metagenomic sequencing detected a higher abundance of aromatic compound degradation genes in response to lignin, particularly phenylacetyl-CoA, which may be an effective strategy for marine microbes in fluctuating oxygen concentrations. 16S rRNA gene amplicon sequencing detected a higher abundance of Gammaproteobacteria and Alphaproteobacteria bacteria such as taxonomic families Idiomarinaceae, Alcanivoraceae, and Alteromonadaceae in response to lignin. Meanwhile, fungal Ascomycetes and Basidiomycetes remained at very low abundance. Our findings demonstrate the significant potential of bacteria and microbes utilizing the phenylacetyl-CoA pathway to contribute to lignin degradation in the Eastern Mediterranean where environmental conditions are unfavorable for fungi. Exploring the diversity of bacterial lignin degraders may provide important enzymes for lignin conversion in industry. Enzymes may be key in breaking down high molecular weight lignin and enabling industry to use it as a low-cost and sustainable feedstock for biofuels or other higher-value products.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hannah L Woo
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, The University of Tennessee, Knoxville, Knoxville, TN, United States
| | - Terry C Hazen
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, The University of Tennessee, Knoxville, Knoxville, TN, United States.,Department of Microbiology, The University of Tennessee, Knoxville, Knoxville, TN, United States.,Department of Earth and Planetary Science, The University of Tennessee, Knoxville, Knoxville, TN, United States.,Biosciences Division, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, TN, United States
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Rajan K, Mann JK, English E, Harper DP, Carrier DJ, Rials TG, Labbé N, Chmely SC. Sustainable Hydrogels Based on Lignin-Methacrylate Copolymers with Enhanced Water Retention and Tunable Material Properties. Biomacromolecules 2018; 19:2665-2672. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.biomac.8b00282] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Kalavathy Rajan
- Center for Renewable Carbon, The University of Tennessee Institute of Agriculture, Knoxville, Tennessee 37996, United States
- Department of Biosystems Engineering and Soil Science, The University of Tennessee Institute of Agriculture, Knoxville, Tennessee 37996, United States
| | - Jeffrey K. Mann
- Center for Renewable Carbon, The University of Tennessee Institute of Agriculture, Knoxville, Tennessee 37996, United States
| | - Eldon English
- Center for Renewable Carbon, The University of Tennessee Institute of Agriculture, Knoxville, Tennessee 37996, United States
- Faculty of Sciences, Halls Middle School, 4317 East Emory Road, Knoxville, Tennessee 37938, United States
| | - David P. Harper
- Center for Renewable Carbon, The University of Tennessee Institute of Agriculture, Knoxville, Tennessee 37996, United States
| | - Danielle Julie Carrier
- Department of Biosystems Engineering and Soil Science, The University of Tennessee Institute of Agriculture, Knoxville, Tennessee 37996, United States
| | - Timothy G. Rials
- Center for Renewable Carbon, The University of Tennessee Institute of Agriculture, Knoxville, Tennessee 37996, United States
| | - Nicole Labbé
- Center for Renewable Carbon, The University of Tennessee Institute of Agriculture, Knoxville, Tennessee 37996, United States
| | - Stephen C. Chmely
- Center for Renewable Carbon, The University of Tennessee Institute of Agriculture, Knoxville, Tennessee 37996, United States
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11
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Adenson MO, Murillo JD, Kelley M, Biernacki JJ, Bagley CP. Slow Pyrolysis Kinetics of Two Herbaceous Feedstock: Effect of Milling, Source, and Heating Rate. Ind Eng Chem Res 2018. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.iecr.7b04020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Michael O. Adenson
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Tennessee Technological University, Cookeville, Tennessee 38505, United States
| | - Jessica D. Murillo
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Tennessee Technological University, Cookeville, Tennessee 38505, United States
- College of Interdisciplinary Studies, Environmental Sciences, Tennessee Technological University, Cookeville, Tennessee 38505, United States
| | - Matthew Kelley
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Tennessee Technological University, Cookeville, Tennessee 38505, United States
| | - Joseph J. Biernacki
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Tennessee Technological University, Cookeville, Tennessee 38505, United States
| | - Clyde P. Bagley
- College of Agricultural and Human Sciences, Tennessee Technological University, Cookeville, Tennessee 38505, United States
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Regmi YN, Mann JK, McBride JR, Tao J, Barnes CE, Labbé N, Chmely SC. Catalytic transfer hydrogenolysis of organosolv lignin using B-containing FeNi alloyed catalysts. Catal Today 2018. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cattod.2017.05.051] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
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13
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Hosseinaei O, Harper DP, Bozell JJ, Rials TG. Improving Processing and Performance of Pure Lignin Carbon Fibers through Hardwood and Herbaceous Lignin Blends. Int J Mol Sci 2017; 18:ijms18071410. [PMID: 28671571 PMCID: PMC5535902 DOI: 10.3390/ijms18071410] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/18/2017] [Revised: 06/22/2017] [Accepted: 06/27/2017] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Lignin/lignin blends were used to improve fiber spinning, stabilization rates, and properties of lignin-based carbon fibers. Organosolv lignin from Alamo switchgrass (Panicum virgatum) and yellow poplar (Liriodendron tulipifera) were used as blends for making lignin-based carbon fibers. Different ratios of yellow poplar:switchgrass lignin blends were prepared (50:50, 75:25, and 85:15 w/w). Chemical composition and thermal properties of lignin samples were determined. Thermal properties of lignins were analyzed using thermogravimetric analysis and differential scanning calorimetry. Thermal analysis confirmed switchgrass and yellow poplar lignin form miscible blends, as a single glass transition was observed. Lignin fibers were produced via melt-spinning by twin-screw extrusion. Lignin fibers were thermostabilized at different rates and subsequently carbonized. Spinnability of switchgrass lignin markedly improved by blending with yellow poplar lignin. On the other hand, switchgrass lignin significantly improved thermostabilization performance of yellow poplar fibers, preventing fusion of fibers during fast stabilization and improving mechanical properties of fibers. These results suggest a route towards a 100% renewable carbon fiber with significant decrease in production time and improved mechanical performance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Omid Hosseinaei
- Center for Renewable Carbon, University of Tennessee, 2506 Jacob Drive, Knoxville, TN 37996, USA.
| | - David P Harper
- Center for Renewable Carbon, University of Tennessee, 2506 Jacob Drive, Knoxville, TN 37996, USA.
| | - Joseph J Bozell
- Center for Renewable Carbon, University of Tennessee, 2506 Jacob Drive, Knoxville, TN 37996, USA.
| | - Timothy G Rials
- Center for Renewable Carbon, University of Tennessee, 2506 Jacob Drive, Knoxville, TN 37996, USA.
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Brun N, Hesemann P, Esposito D. Expanding the biomass derived chemical space. Chem Sci 2017; 8:4724-4738. [PMID: 28959397 PMCID: PMC5603961 DOI: 10.1039/c7sc00936d] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2017] [Accepted: 04/22/2017] [Indexed: 02/02/2023] Open
Abstract
The derivatization and covalent modification of biomass derived platform chemicals expand the biomass derived chemical spaces allowing for the preparation of new bioactive molecules and materials.
Biorefinery aims at the conversion of biomass and renewable feedstocks into fuels and platform chemicals, in analogy to conventional oil refinery. In the past years, the scientific community has defined a number of primary building blocks that can be obtained by direct biomass decomposition. However, the large potential of this “renewable chemical space” to contribute to the generation of value added bio-active compounds and materials still remains unexplored. In general, biomass derived building blocks feature a diverse range of chemical functionalities. In order to be integrated into value-added compounds, they require additional functionalization and/or covalent modification thereby generating secondary building blocks. The latter can be thus regarded as functional components of bio-active molecules or materials and represent an expansion of the renewable chemical space. This perspective highlights the most recent developments and opportunities for the synthesis of secondary biomass derived building blocks and their application to the preparation of value added products.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicolas Brun
- Institut Charles Gerhardt , UMR 5253 CNRS - Université de Montpellier - ENSCM , Place Eugène Bataillon , 34095 Montpellier cédex 05 , France
| | - Peter Hesemann
- Institut Charles Gerhardt , UMR 5253 CNRS - Université de Montpellier - ENSCM , Place Eugène Bataillon , 34095 Montpellier cédex 05 , France
| | - Davide Esposito
- Max-Planck-Institute of Colloids and Interfaces , 14424 Potsdam , Germany .
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