1
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Acosta-Calle S, Huebsch EZ, Kolmar SS, Whited MT, Chen CH, Miller AJM. Regulating Access to Active Sites via Hydrogen Bonding and Cation-Dipole Interactions: A Dual Cofactor Approach to Switchable Catalysis. J Am Chem Soc 2024. [PMID: 38598724 DOI: 10.1021/jacs.3c10877] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/12/2024]
Abstract
Hydrogen bonding networks are ubiquitous in biological systems and play a key role in controlling the conformational dynamics and allosteric interactions of enzymes. Yet in small organometallic catalysts, hydrogen bonding rarely controls ligand binding to the metal center. In this work, a hydrogen bonding network within a well-defined organometallic catalyst works in concert with cation-dipole interactions to gate substrate access to the active site. An ammine ligand acts as one cofactor, templating a hydrogen bonding network within a pendent crown ether and preventing the binding of strong donor ligands, such as nitriles, to the nickel center. Sodium ions are the second cofactor, disrupting hydrogen bonding to enable switchable ligand substitution reactions. Thermodynamic analyses provide insight into the energetic requirements of the different supramolecular interactions that enable substrate gating. The dual cofactor approach enables switchable catalytic hydroamination of crotononitrile. Systematic comparisons of catalysts with varying structural features provide support for the critical role of the dual cofactors in achieving on/off catalysis with substrates containing strongly donating functional groups that might otherwise interfere with switchable catalysts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sebastian Acosta-Calle
- Department of Chemistry, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27599-3290, United States
| | - Elsa Z Huebsch
- Department of Chemistry, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27599-3290, United States
| | - Scott S Kolmar
- Department of Chemistry, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27599-3290, United States
| | - Matthew T Whited
- Department of Chemistry, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27599-3290, United States
- Department of Chemistry, Carleton College, Northfield, Minnesota 55057, United States
| | - Chun-Hsing Chen
- Department of Chemistry, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27599-3290, United States
| | - Alexander J M Miller
- Department of Chemistry, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27599-3290, United States
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2
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Bhurta D, Bharate SB. Styryl Group, a Friend or Foe in Medicinal Chemistry. ChemMedChem 2022; 17:e202100706. [PMID: 35166041 DOI: 10.1002/cmdc.202100706] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/09/2021] [Revised: 02/12/2022] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
The styryl (Ph-CH=CH-R) group is widely represented in medicinally important compounds, including drugs, clinical candidates, and molecular probes as it positively impacts the lipophilicity, oral absorption, and biological activity. The analysis of matched molecular pairs (styryl vs. phenethyl, phenyl, methyl, H) for the biological activity indicates the superiority aspect of styryl compounds. However, the Michael acceptor site in the styryl group makes it amenable to the nucleophilic attack by biological nucleophiles and transformation to the toxic metabolites. One of the downsides of styryl compounds is isomerization that impacts the molecular conformation and directly affects biological activity. The impact of cis-trans isomerism and isosteric replacements on biological activity is exemplified. We also discuss the styryl group-bearing drugs, clinical candidates, and fluorescent probes. Overall, the present review reveals the utility of the styryl group in medicinal chemistry and drug discovery.
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Affiliation(s)
- Deendyal Bhurta
- Council of Scientific & Industrial Research Indian Institute of Integrative Medicine, Natural Products and medicinal chemistry, 180001, Jammu, INDIA
| | - Sandip Bibishan Bharate
- Indian Institute of Integrative Medicine CSIR, Natural Products & Medicinal Chemistry, Canal Road, 180001, Jammu, INDIA
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3
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Kaler S, Jones MD. Recent advances in externally controlled ring-opening polymerisations. Dalton Trans 2021; 51:1241-1256. [PMID: 34918735 DOI: 10.1039/d1dt03471e] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Switchable catalysis is a powerful tool in the polymer chemist's toolbox as it allows on demand access to a variety of polymer architectures. Switchable catalysts operate by the generation of a species which is chemically distinct in behaviour and structure to the precursor. This difference in catalytic activity has been exploited to allow spatiotemporal control over polymerisations in the synthesis of (co)polymers. Although switchable methodologies have been applied to other polymerisation mechanisms for quite some time, for ring opening polymerisation (ROP) reactions it is a relatively young area of research. Despite its infancy, the field is accelerating rapidly. Here, we review recent developments for selected external stimuli for ROP, including redox chemistry, light, allosteric and mechanical control. Furthermore, a brief review on switch catalysis involving exogeneous gases will also be provided, although this area differs from traditional switchable catalysis techniques. An outlook on the future of switchable catalysis is also provided.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sandeep Kaler
- Department of Chemistry, University of Bath, Claverton Down, Bath, BA2 7AY, UK.
| | - Matthew D Jones
- Department of Chemistry, University of Bath, Claverton Down, Bath, BA2 7AY, UK.
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4
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Olivo G, Capocasa G, Del Giudice D, Lanzalunga O, Di Stefano S. New horizons for catalysis disclosed by supramolecular chemistry. Chem Soc Rev 2021; 50:7681-7724. [PMID: 34008654 DOI: 10.1039/d1cs00175b] [Citation(s) in RCA: 74] [Impact Index Per Article: 24.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
The adoption of a supramolecular approach in catalysis promises to address a number of unmet challenges, ranging from activity (unlocking of novel reaction pathways) to selectivity (alteration of the innate selectivity of a reaction, e.g. selective functionalization of C-H bonds) and regulation (switch ON/OFF, sequential catalysis, etc.). Supramolecular tools such as reversible association and recognition, pre-organization of reactants and stabilization of transition states upon binding offer a unique chance to achieve the above goals disclosing new horizons whose potential is being increasingly recognized and used, sometimes reaching the degree of ripeness for practical use. This review summarizes the main developments that have opened such new frontiers, with the aim of providing a guide to researchers approaching the field. We focus on artificial supramolecular catalysts of defined stoichiometry which, under homogeneous conditions, unlock outcomes that are highly difficult if not impossible to attain otherwise, namely unnatural reactivity or selectivity and catalysis regulation. The different strategies recently explored in supramolecular catalysis are concisely presented, and, for each one, a single or very few examples is/are described (mainly last 10 years, with only milestone older works discussed). The subject is divided into four sections in light of the key design principle: (i) nanoconfinement of reactants, (ii) recognition-driven catalysis, (iii) catalysis regulation by molecular machines and (iv) processive catalysis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Giorgio Olivo
- Dipartimento di Chimica, Università degli Studi di Roma "La Sapienza", Dipartimento di Chimica and ISB-CNR Sede Secondaria di Roma - Meccanismi di Reazione, P.le A. Moro 5, I-00185 Rome, Italy.
| | - Giorgio Capocasa
- Dipartimento di Chimica, Università degli Studi di Roma "La Sapienza", Dipartimento di Chimica and ISB-CNR Sede Secondaria di Roma - Meccanismi di Reazione, P.le A. Moro 5, I-00185 Rome, Italy.
| | - Daniele Del Giudice
- Dipartimento di Chimica, Università degli Studi di Roma "La Sapienza", Dipartimento di Chimica and ISB-CNR Sede Secondaria di Roma - Meccanismi di Reazione, P.le A. Moro 5, I-00185 Rome, Italy.
| | - Osvaldo Lanzalunga
- Dipartimento di Chimica, Università degli Studi di Roma "La Sapienza", Dipartimento di Chimica and ISB-CNR Sede Secondaria di Roma - Meccanismi di Reazione, P.le A. Moro 5, I-00185 Rome, Italy.
| | - Stefano Di Stefano
- Dipartimento di Chimica, Università degli Studi di Roma "La Sapienza", Dipartimento di Chimica and ISB-CNR Sede Secondaria di Roma - Meccanismi di Reazione, P.le A. Moro 5, I-00185 Rome, Italy.
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5
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Czescik J, Lyu Y, Neuberg S, Scrimin P, Mancin F. Host-Guest Allosteric Control of an Artificial Phosphatase. J Am Chem Soc 2020; 142:6837-6841. [PMID: 32212681 PMCID: PMC7997383 DOI: 10.1021/jacs.9b12699] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
![]()
The
activity of many enzymes is regulated by associative processes.
To model this mechanism, we report here that the conformation of an
unstructured bimetallic Zn(II) complex can be controlled by its inclusion
in the cavity of a γ-cyclodextrin. This results in the formation
of a catalytic bimetallic site for the hydrolytic cleavage of the
RNA model substrate HPNP, whose reactivity is 30-fold larger with
respect to the unstructured complex. Competitive inhibition with 1-adamantanecarboxylate
displaces the metal complex from the cyclodextrin decreasing the reactivity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joanna Czescik
- Università di Padova, Dipartimento di Scienze Chimiche, via Marzolo 1, 35131 Padova, Italy
| | - Yanchao Lyu
- Università di Padova, Dipartimento di Scienze Chimiche, via Marzolo 1, 35131 Padova, Italy
| | - Samuele Neuberg
- Università di Padova, Dipartimento di Scienze Chimiche, via Marzolo 1, 35131 Padova, Italy
| | - Paolo Scrimin
- Università di Padova, Dipartimento di Scienze Chimiche, via Marzolo 1, 35131 Padova, Italy
| | - Fabrizio Mancin
- Università di Padova, Dipartimento di Scienze Chimiche, via Marzolo 1, 35131 Padova, Italy
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6
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Payne C, Kass SR. Structural considerations for charge‐enhanced Brønsted acid catalysts. J PHYS ORG CHEM 2020. [DOI: 10.1002/poc.4069] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Curtis Payne
- Department of Chemistry University of Minnesota Minneapolis MN USA
| | - Steven R. Kass
- Department of Chemistry University of Minnesota Minneapolis MN USA
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7
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Saha S, Ghosh A, Paululat T, Schmittel M. Allosteric regulation of rotational, optical and catalytic properties within multicomponent machinery. Dalton Trans 2020; 49:8693-8700. [DOI: 10.1039/d0dt01961e] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Allosteric regulation of various functions within multicomponent machinery was triggered by the reversible transformation of nanorotors (k298 = 44–61 kHz) to “dimeric” supramolecular structures (k298 = 0.60 kHz) upon adding a stoichiometric chemical stimulus.
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Affiliation(s)
- Suchismita Saha
- Center of Micro- and Nanochemistry and Engineering
- Department Chemie – Biologie
- Organische Chemie I
- D-57068 Siegen
- Germany
| | - Amit Ghosh
- Center of Micro- and Nanochemistry and Engineering
- Department Chemie – Biologie
- Organische Chemie I
- D-57068 Siegen
- Germany
| | - Thomas Paululat
- Department Chemie – Biologie
- Organische Chemie II
- D-57068 Siegen
- Germany
| | - Michael Schmittel
- Center of Micro- and Nanochemistry and Engineering
- Department Chemie – Biologie
- Organische Chemie I
- D-57068 Siegen
- Germany
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8
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van Dijk L, Tilby MJ, Szpera R, Smith OA, Bunce HAP, Fletcher SP. Molecular machines for catalysis. Nat Rev Chem 2018. [DOI: 10.1038/s41570-018-0117] [Citation(s) in RCA: 72] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
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9
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Serra-Pont A, Alfonso I, Solà J, Jimeno C. A copper-templated, bifunctional organocatalyst: a strongly cooperative dynamic system for the aldol reaction. Org Biomol Chem 2018; 15:6584-6591. [PMID: 28749514 DOI: 10.1039/c7ob01370a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
The study of novel metal-templated dynamic organocatalytic systems has led to the identification of CuSO4 as the most efficient template to assemble monofunctional prolinamide- and thiourea-modified pyridine ligands. The structural and electronic requirements to assemble an efficient catalyst have been disclosed: both pyridine ligands must bear a 1,3-substitution pattern, and the thiourea ligand serves as a reducing agent to copper(i) as well. Eventually, the cooperative effects achieved with such a simple system deliver high reaction rates and stereoselectivities at room temperature in the asymmetric aldol reaction, requiring only 1 mol% of copper salt.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna Serra-Pont
- Department of Biological Chemistry and Molecular Modelling, Institute of Advanced Chemistry of Catalonia (IQAC-CSIC), Jordi Girona 18-26, E08034 Barcelona, Spain.
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10
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d’Aquino AI, Cheng HF, Barroso-Flores J, Kean ZS, Mendez-Arroyo J, McGuirk CM, Mirkin CA. An Allosterically Regulated, Four-State Macrocycle. Inorg Chem 2018; 57:3568-3578. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.inorgchem.7b02745] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Andrea I. d’Aquino
- Department of Chemistry and International Institute for Nanotechnology, Northwestern University, 2145 Sheridan Road, Evanston, Illinois 60208, United States
| | - Ho Fung Cheng
- Department of Chemistry and International Institute for Nanotechnology, Northwestern University, 2145 Sheridan Road, Evanston, Illinois 60208, United States
| | - Joaquín Barroso-Flores
- Centro Conjunto de Investigación en Química Sustentable, UAEM-UNAM, Carretera Toluca-Atlacomulco Km 14.5, Personal de la UNAM, Unidad San Cayetano, Toluca, Estado de México C.P. 50200, México
| | - Zachary S. Kean
- Department of Chemistry and International Institute for Nanotechnology, Northwestern University, 2145 Sheridan Road, Evanston, Illinois 60208, United States
| | - Jose Mendez-Arroyo
- Department of Chemistry and International Institute for Nanotechnology, Northwestern University, 2145 Sheridan Road, Evanston, Illinois 60208, United States
| | - C. Michael McGuirk
- Department of Chemistry and International Institute for Nanotechnology, Northwestern University, 2145 Sheridan Road, Evanston, Illinois 60208, United States
| | - Chad A. Mirkin
- Department of Chemistry and International Institute for Nanotechnology, Northwestern University, 2145 Sheridan Road, Evanston, Illinois 60208, United States
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11
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Wilders AM, Contrella ND, Sampson JR, Zheng M, Jordan RF. Allosteric Effects in Ethylene Polymerization Catalysis. Enhancement of Performance of Phosphine-Phosphinate and Phosphine-Phosphonate Palladium Alkyl Catalysts by Remote Binding of B(C6F5)3. Organometallics 2017. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.organomet.7b00815] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Alison M. Wilders
- Department of Chemistry, University of Chicago, 5735 S. Ellis Avenue, Chicago, Illinois 60637, United States
| | - Nathan D. Contrella
- Department of Chemistry, University of Chicago, 5735 S. Ellis Avenue, Chicago, Illinois 60637, United States
| | - Jessica R. Sampson
- Department of Chemistry, University of Chicago, 5735 S. Ellis Avenue, Chicago, Illinois 60637, United States
| | - Mingfang Zheng
- Department of Chemistry, University of Chicago, 5735 S. Ellis Avenue, Chicago, Illinois 60637, United States
| | - Richard F. Jordan
- Department of Chemistry, University of Chicago, 5735 S. Ellis Avenue, Chicago, Illinois 60637, United States
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12
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Mote NR, Patel K, Shinde DR, Gaikwad SR, Koshti VS, Gonnade RG, Chikkali SH. H-Bonding Assisted Self-Assembly of Anionic and Neutral Ligand on Metal: A Comprehensive Strategy To Mimic Ditopic Ligands in Olefin Polymerization. Inorg Chem 2017; 56:12448-12456. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.inorgchem.7b01923] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Nilesh R. Mote
- Polyolefin Lab,
Polymer Science and Engineering Division, CSIR-National Chemical Laboratory, Dr. Homi Bhabha Road, Pune-411008, India
| | - Ketan Patel
- Polyolefin Lab,
Polymer Science and Engineering Division, CSIR-National Chemical Laboratory, Dr. Homi Bhabha Road, Pune-411008, India
| | - Dinesh R. Shinde
- Central
NMR facility, CSIR-National Chemical Laboratory, Dr. Homi Bhabha Road, Pune-411008, India
| | - Shahaji R. Gaikwad
- Polyolefin Lab,
Polymer Science and Engineering Division, CSIR-National Chemical Laboratory, Dr. Homi Bhabha Road, Pune-411008, India
| | - Vijay S. Koshti
- Polyolefin Lab,
Polymer Science and Engineering Division, CSIR-National Chemical Laboratory, Dr. Homi Bhabha Road, Pune-411008, India
| | - Rajesh G. Gonnade
- Center for Materials Characterization, CSIR-National Chemical Laboratory, Dr. Homi Bhabha Road, Pune-411008, India
| | - Samir H. Chikkali
- Polyolefin Lab,
Polymer Science and Engineering Division, CSIR-National Chemical Laboratory, Dr. Homi Bhabha Road, Pune-411008, India
- Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research (AcSIR), Anusandhan Bhawan, 2 Rafi Marg, New Delhi-110001, India
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13
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De Bo G, Leigh DA, McTernan CT, Wang S. A complementary pair of enantioselective switchable organocatalysts. Chem Sci 2017; 8:7077-7081. [PMID: 29147536 PMCID: PMC5637462 DOI: 10.1039/c7sc02462b] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/01/2017] [Accepted: 08/22/2017] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
A pair of enantioselective switchable bifunctional catalysts are shown to promote a range of conjugate addition reactions in up to 95 : 5 e.r. and 95% conversion. Each catalyst can be switched OFF using conditions that switch the other catalyst ON. Catalyst ON : OFF ratios of up to 98 : 2 and 1 : 99 were achieved, with a ratio of reaction rates of up to 16 : 1 between the ON and OFF states, maintained over complete ON-OFF-ON and OFF-ON-OFF cycles. However, simultaneous operation of the catalyst pair in the same reaction vessel, which in principle could allow product handedness to be switched by simple E-Z isomerisation of the catalyst pair, was unsuccessful. In this first generation complementary pair of enantioselective switchable organocatalysts, the OFF state of one catalyst inhibits the ON state of the other.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guillaume De Bo
- School of Chemistry , University of Manchester , Oxford Road , Manchester , M13 9PL , UK .
| | - David A Leigh
- School of Chemistry , University of Manchester , Oxford Road , Manchester , M13 9PL , UK .
| | - Charlie T McTernan
- School of Chemistry , University of Manchester , Oxford Road , Manchester , M13 9PL , UK .
| | - Shoufeng Wang
- School of Chemistry , University of Manchester , Oxford Road , Manchester , M13 9PL , UK .
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14
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Specklin D, Hild F, Chen L, Thévenin L, Munch M, Dumas F, Le Bideau F, Dagorne S. Bifunctional Squaramides as Organocatalysts for Lactide Polymerization: Catalytic Performance and Comparison with Monofunctional Analogues. ChemCatChem 2017. [DOI: 10.1002/cctc.201700272] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- David Specklin
- Institut de Chimie de Strasbourg; CNRS; Université de Strasbourg; 1 rue Blaise Pascal 67000 Strasbourg France
| | - Frédéric Hild
- Institut de Chimie de Strasbourg; CNRS; Université de Strasbourg; 1 rue Blaise Pascal 67000 Strasbourg France
| | - Li Chen
- Institut de Chimie de Strasbourg; CNRS; Université de Strasbourg; 1 rue Blaise Pascal 67000 Strasbourg France
- BioCIS, Univ. Paris-Sud; CNRS; Université Paris-Saclay; 92290 Châtenay-Malabry France
| | - Lucas Thévenin
- Institut de Chimie de Strasbourg; CNRS; Université de Strasbourg; 1 rue Blaise Pascal 67000 Strasbourg France
| | - Maxime Munch
- Institut de Chimie de Strasbourg; CNRS; Université de Strasbourg; 1 rue Blaise Pascal 67000 Strasbourg France
| | - Françoise Dumas
- BioCIS, Univ. Paris-Sud; CNRS; Université Paris-Saclay; 92290 Châtenay-Malabry France
| | - Franck Le Bideau
- BioCIS, Univ. Paris-Sud; CNRS; Université Paris-Saclay; 92290 Châtenay-Malabry France
| | - Samuel Dagorne
- Institut de Chimie de Strasbourg; CNRS; Université de Strasbourg; 1 rue Blaise Pascal 67000 Strasbourg France
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15
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Liu Y, Kean ZS, d’Aquino AI, Manraj YD, Mendez-Arroyo J, Mirkin CA. Palladium(II) Weak-Link Approach Complexes Bearing Hemilabile N-Heterocyclic Carbene–Thioether Ligands. Inorg Chem 2017; 56:5902-5910. [PMID: 28471640 DOI: 10.1021/acs.inorgchem.7b00543] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Yuan Liu
- Department of Chemistry and International
Institute for Nanotechnology, Northwestern University, 2145 Sheridan Road, Evanston, Illinois 60208, United States
| | - Zachary S. Kean
- Department of Chemistry and International
Institute for Nanotechnology, Northwestern University, 2145 Sheridan Road, Evanston, Illinois 60208, United States
| | - Andrea I. d’Aquino
- Department of Chemistry and International
Institute for Nanotechnology, Northwestern University, 2145 Sheridan Road, Evanston, Illinois 60208, United States
| | - Yashin D. Manraj
- Department of Chemistry and International
Institute for Nanotechnology, Northwestern University, 2145 Sheridan Road, Evanston, Illinois 60208, United States
| | - Jose Mendez-Arroyo
- Department of Chemistry and International
Institute for Nanotechnology, Northwestern University, 2145 Sheridan Road, Evanston, Illinois 60208, United States
| | - Chad. A. Mirkin
- Department of Chemistry and International
Institute for Nanotechnology, Northwestern University, 2145 Sheridan Road, Evanston, Illinois 60208, United States
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