Hollow mesoporous carbon nanocarriers for vancomycin delivery: understanding the structure-release relationship for prolonged antibacterial performance

Recent advances in nanostructured delivery systems for vancomycin

Despite the development of new generations of antibiotics, vancomycin remained as a high-efficacy antibiotic for treating the infections caused by MRSA. Researchers have explored various nanoformulations, aiming to enhance the therapeutic efficacy of vancomycin. Such novel formulations improve the effectiveness of drug cargoes in treating bacterial infections and minimizing the risk of adverse effects. The vast of researches have focuses on enhancing the permeation ability of vancomycin through different biological barriers especially those of gastrointestinal tract. Increasing the drug loading and tuning the drug release from nanocarrier are other important goal for many conducted studies. This study reviews the newest nano-based formulations for vancomycin as a key antibiotic in treating hospitalized bacterial infections.

Unraveling the Adsorption Behavior of Thymol on Carbon and Silica Nanospheres for Prolonged Antibacterial Activity: Experimental and DFT Studies

Functionalization of thymol (Thy) on nanocarriers is a key step in achieving prolonged antimicrobial activity. This requires nanomaterials with uniform particle diameters and suitable thymol sorption. Herein, hollow carbon (HC) and SiO2-carbon core-shell (SiO2@C) were investigated due to their diverse morphologies and ease of surface modification. HC (14 ± 1 nm size) and SiO2@C (10 ± 1.5 nm size) were synthesized by the Stöber method before thymol was loaded by incipient wetness impregnation. Nanoparticle physicochemical properties were characterized by advanced techniques, including X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) and near-edge X-ray absorption fine structure (NEXAFS). Adsorption energies of thymol on the carbon and SiO2 surfaces were elucidated by density functional theory (DFT) simulations. Moreover, the in vitro thymol release profiles and antibacterial activity were evaluated. The experimental results indicated that the oxy-carbon surface species of HC led to longer thymol release profiles than the -OH group of SiO2@C. The DFT calculations revealed that the weaker physical interaction of thymol on HC was better for drug release than that on SiO2@C. Thus, a longer thymol release profile of HC with hollow structures showed better antibacterial performance against Gram-positive bacteria Staphylococcus aureus than that of SiO2@C with core-shell structures. This work confirms the important role of carbon morphology and specific functional groups in thymol release profiles for the further development of inhibition products.

Inorganic hollow mesoporous spheres-based delivery for antimicrobial agents

Microorganisms coexist with human beings and have formed a complex relationship with us. However, the abnormal spread of pathogens can cause infectious diseases thus demands antibacterial agents. Currently available antimicrobials, such as silver ions, antimicrobial peptides and antibiotics, have diverse concerns in chemical stability, biocompatibility, or triggering drug resistance. The "encapsulate-and-deliver" strategy can protect antimicrobials against decomposing, so to avoid large dose release induced resistance and achieve the controlled release. Considering loading capacity, engineering feasibility, and economic viability, inorganic hollow mesoporous spheres (iHMSs) represent one kind of promising and suitable candidates for real-life antimicrobial applications. Here we reviewed the recent research progress of iHMSs-based antimicrobial delivery. We summarized the synthesis of iHMSs and the drug loading method of various antimicrobials, and discussed the future applications. To prevent and mitigate the spread of an infective disease, multilateral coordination at the national level is required. Moreover, developing effective and practicable antimicrobials is the key to enhancing our capability to eliminate pathogenic microbes. We believe that our conclusion will be beneficial for researches on the antimicrobial delivery in both lab and mass production phases.

Hollow Nanomaterials in Advanced Drug Delivery Systems: From Single- to Multiple Shells

Hollow-structured nanomaterials (HSNMs) have attracted increased interest in biomedical fields, owing to their excellent potential as drug delivery systems (DDSs) for clinical applications. Among HSNMs, hollow multi-shelled structures (HoMSs) exhibit properties such as high loading capacity, sequential drug release, and multi-functionalized modification and represent a new class of nanoplatforms for clinical applications. The remarkable properties of HoMS-based DDS can simultaneously satisfy and enhance DDSs for delivering small molecular drugs (e.g., antibiotics, chemotherapy drugs, and imaging agents) and macromolecular drugs (e.g., protein/peptide- and nucleic acid-based drugs). First, the latest research advances in delivering small molecular drugs are summarized and highlight the inherent advantages of HoMS-based DDSs for small molecular drug targeting, combining continuous therapeutic drug delivery and theranostics to optimize the clinical benefit. Meanwhile, the macromolecular drugs DDSs are in the initial development stage and currently offer limited delivery modes. There is a growing need to analyze the deficiency of other HSNMs and integrate the advantages of HSNMs, providing solutions for the safe, stable, and cascade delivery of macromolecular drugs to meet vast treatment requirements. Therefore, the latest advances in HoMS-based DDSs are comprehensively reviewed, mainly focusing on the characteristics, research progress by drug category, and future research prospects.

Recent nanotechnology-based strategies for interfering with the life cycle of bacterial biofilms

Biofilm formation plays an important role in the resistance development in bacteria to conventional antibiotics. Different properties of the bacterial strains within biofilms compared with their planktonic states and the protective effect of extracellular polymeric substances contribute to the insusceptibility of bacterial cells to conventional antimicrobials. Although great effort has been devoted to developing novel antibiotics or synthetic antibacterial compounds, their efficiency is overshadowed by the growth of drug resistance. Developments in nanotechnology have brought various feasible strategies to combat biofilms by interfering with the biofilm life cycle. In this review, recent nanotechnology-based strategies for interfering with the biofilm life cycle according to the requirements of different stages are summarized. Additionally, the importance of strategies that modulate the bacterial biofilm microenvironment is also illustrated with specific examples. Lastly, we discussed the remaining challenges and future perspectives on nanotechnology-based strategies for the treatment of bacterial infection.

Co-Delivery of Nano-Silver and Vancomycin via Silica Nanopollens for Enhanced Antibacterial Functions

Infectious diseases caused by bacteria have led to a great threat to public health. With the significant advances in nanotechnology in recent decades, nanomaterials have emerged as a powerful tool to boost antibacterial performance due to either intrinsic bactericidal properties or by enhancing the delivery efficiency of antibiotics for effective pathogen killing. Vancomycin, as one of the most widely employed antimicrobial peptides, has a potent bactericidal activity, but at the same time shows a limited bioavailability. Silver nanoparticles have also been extensively explored and were found to have a well-recognized antibacterial activity and limited resistance potential; however, how to prevent nanosized Ag particles from aggregation in biological conditions is challenging. In this study, we aimed to combine the advantages of both vancomycin and nano-Ag for enhanced bacterial killing, where both antibacterial agents were successfully loaded onto a silica nanoparticle with a pollen-like morphology. The morphology of nano-Ag-decorated silica nanopollens was characterized using transmission electron microscopy and elemental mapping through energy dispersive spectroscopy. Silver nanoparticles with a size of 10–25 nm were observed as well-distributed on the surface of silica nanoparticles of around 200 nm. The unique design of a spiky morphology of silica nano-carriers promoted the adhesion of nanoparticles towards bacterial surfaces to promote localized drug release for bacterial killing, where the bacterial damage was visualized through scanning electron microscopy. Enhanced bactericidal activity was demonstrated through this co-delivery of vancomycin and nano-Ag, decreasing the minimum inhibition concentration (MIC) towards E. coli and S. epidermidis down to 15 and 10 µg/mL. This study provides an efficient antimicrobial nano-strategy to address potential bacterial infections.

Enhanced Inhibition of Drug-Resistant Escherichia coli by Tetracycline Hydrochloride-Loaded Multipore Mesoporous Silica Nanoparticles

Drug-resistant bacterial infections exhibit a major threat to public health. Thus, exploring a novel antibacterial with efficient inhibition is urgently needed. Herein, this paper describes three types of MSNs (MSNs-FC2-R1, MSNs-FC2-R0.75, MSNs-FC2-R0.5) with controllable pore size (4–6 nm) and particle size (30–90 nm) that were successfully prepared. The MSNs were loaded with tetracycline hydrochloride (TCH) for effective inhibition of Escherichia coli (ATCC25922) and TCH-resistant Escherichia coli (MQ776). Results showed that the loading capacity of TCH in three types of MSNs was as high as over 500 mg/g, and the cumulative release was less than 33% in 60 h. The inhibitory rate of MSNs-FC2-R0.5 loaded with TCH against E. coli and drug-resistant E. coli reached 99.9% and 92.9% at the concentration of MIC, respectively, compared with the other two types of MSNs or free TCH. Modified MSNs in our study showed a great application for long-term bacterial growth inhibition.

Polypropylene Graft Poly(methyl methacrylate) Graft Poly(N-vinylimidazole) as a Smart Material for pH-Controlled Drug Delivery

Surface modification of polypropylene (PP) films was achieved using gamma-irradiation-induced grafting to provide an adequate surface capable of carrying glycopeptide antibiotics. The copolymer was obtained following a versatile two-step route; pristine PP was exposed to gamma rays and grafted with methyl methacrylate (MMA), and afterward, the film was grafted with N-vinylimidazole (NVI) by simultaneous irradiation. Characterization included Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), scanning electron microscope (SEM), thermogravimetric analysis (TGA), X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), and physicochemical analysis of swelling and contact angle. The new material (PP-g-MMA)-g-NVI was loaded with vancomycin to quantify the release by UV-vis spectrophotometry at different pH. The surface of (PP-g-MMA)-g-NVI exhibited pH-responsiveness and moderate hydrophilicity, which are suitable properties for controlled drug release.

Hollow structures as drug carriers: Recognition, response, and release

Hollow structures have demonstrated great potential in drug delivery owing to their privileged structure, such as high surface-to-volume ratio, low density, large cavities, and hierarchical pores. In this review, we provide a comprehensive overview of hollow structured materials applied in targeting recognition, smart response, and drug release, and we have addressed the possible chemical factors and reactions in these three processes. The advantages of hollow nanostructures are summarized as follows: hollow cavity contributes to large loading capacity; a tailored structure helps controllable drug release; variable compounds adapt to flexible application; surface modification facilitates smart responsive release. Especially, because the multiple physical barriers and chemical interactions can be induced by multishells, hollow multishelled structure is considered as a promising material with unique loading and releasing properties. Finally, we conclude this review with some perspectives on the future research and development of the hollow structures as drug carriers.

Nanoantibiotics: Functions and Properties at the Nanoscale to Combat Antibiotic Resistance

One primary mechanism for bacteria developing resistance is frequent exposure to antibiotics. Nanoantibiotics (nAbts) is one of the strategies being explored to counteract the surge of antibiotic resistant bacteria. nAbts are antibiotic molecules encapsulated with engineered nanoparticles (NPs) or artificially synthesized pure antibiotics with a size range of ≤100 nm in at least one dimension. NPs may restore drug efficacy because of their nanoscale functionalities. As carriers and delivery agents, nAbts can reach target sites inside a bacterium by crossing the cell membrane, interfering with cellular components, and damaging metabolic machinery. Nanoscale systems deliver antibiotics at enormous particle number concentrations. The unique size-, shape-, and composition-related properties of nAbts pose multiple simultaneous assaults on bacteria. Resistance of bacteria toward diverse nanoscale conjugates is considerably slower because NPs generate non-biological adverse effects. NPs physically break down bacteria and interfere with critical molecules used in bacterial processes. Genetic mutations from abiotic assault exerted by nAbts are less probable. This paper discusses how to exploit the fundamental physical and chemical properties of NPs to restore the efficacy of conventional antibiotics. We first described the concept of nAbts and explained their importance. We then summarized the critical physicochemical properties of nAbts that can be utilized in manufacturing and designing various nAbts types. nAbts epitomize a potential Trojan horse strategy to circumvent antibiotic resistance mechanisms. The availability of diverse types and multiple targets of nAbts is increasing due to advances in nanotechnology. Studying nanoscale functions and properties may provide an understanding in preventing future outbreaks caused by antibiotic resistance and in developing successful nAbts.

Sequential drug release via chemical diffusion and physical barriers enabled by hollow multishelled structures

Hollow multishelled structures (HoMSs), with relatively isolated cavities and hierarchal pores in the shells, are structurally similar to cells. Functionally inspired by the different transmission forms in living cells, we studied the mass transport process in HoMSs in detail. In the present work, after introducing the antibacterial agent methylisothiazolinone (MIT) as model molecules into HoMSs, we discover three sequential release stages, i.e., burst release, sustained release and stimulus-responsive release, in one system. The triple-shelled structure can provide a long sterility period in a bacteria-rich environment that is nearly 8 times longer than that of the pure antimicrobial agent under the same conditions. More importantly, the HoMS system provides a smart responsive release mechanism that can be triggered by environmental changes. All these advantages could be attributed to chemical diffusion- and physical barrier-driven temporally-spatially ordered drug release, providing a route for the design of intelligent nanomaterials.

Recent advances in mitigating membrane biofouling using carbon-based materials

Biofouling is the Achilles Heel of membrane processes. The accumulation of organic foulants and growth of microorganisms on the membrane surface reduce the permeability, shorten the membrane life, and increase the energy consumption. Advancements in novel carbon-based materials (CBMs) present significant opportunities in mitigating biofouling of membrane processes. This article provides a comprehensive review of the recent progress in the application of CBMs in antibiofouling membrane. It starts with a detailed summary of the different antibiofouling mechanisms of CBM-containing membrane systems. Next, developments in membrane modification using CBMs, especially carbon nanotubes and graphene family materials, are critically reviewed. Further, the antibiofouling potential of next-generation carbon-based membranes is surveyed. Finally, the current problems and future opportunities of applying CBMs for antibiofouling membranes are discussed.

Rational design of yolk–shell nanostructures for drug delivery

The recent progress in yolk–shell nanoparticles (YSNPs) as a new class of hollow nanostructures applied for drug delivery.

Nanoengineered hollow mesoporous silica nanoparticles for the delivery of antimicrobial proteins into biofilms

The delivery of bactericidal proteins into biofilms is challenging. Hollow mesoporous silica nanoparticles with large cone-shaped pores were synthesized to deliver antimicrobial proteins into biofilms and showed enhanced antimicrobial activities.

Fabrication of mesoporous La3Ga5GeO14:Cr3+,Zn2+ persistent luminescence nanocarriers with super-long afterglow for bioimaging-guided in vivo drug delivery to the gut

Infection by pathogens has always been a major threat to human health, a persistent luminescence nanocarriers has been explored and designed for bioimaging-guided in vivo drug delivery to the gut to kill pathogens.

Aptamer-anchored di-polymer shell-capped mesoporous carbon as a drug carrier for bi-trigger targeted drug delivery

Mesoporous carbon nanomaterials have found applications in drug delivery and cancer therapy.

Hollow carbon nanospheres for targeted delivery of chemotherapeutics in breast cancer therapy

Functional hollow carbon nanospheres were prepared and antibody modified, which improved the targeted delivery of anti-tumor drug.

Vancomycin-conjugated polythiophene for the detection and imaging of Gram-positive bacteria

Vancomycin-conjugated polythiophene was synthesized for the discrimination and elimination of Gram-positive bacteria.