1
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Nanomaterials in cancer: Reviewing the combination of hyperthermia and triggered chemotherapy. J Control Release 2022; 347:89-103. [PMID: 35513211 DOI: 10.1016/j.jconrel.2022.04.045] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/18/2022] [Revised: 04/26/2022] [Accepted: 04/27/2022] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
Abstract
Nanoparticle mediated hyperthermia has been explored as a method to increase cancer treatment efficacy by heating tumours inside-out. With that purpose, nanoparticles have been designed and their properties tailored to respond to external stimuli and convert the supplied energy into heat, therefore inducing damage to tumour cells. Moreover, the combination of hyperthermia with chemotherapy has been described as a more effective strategy due to the synergy between the high temperature and the drug's effects, also associated with a remote controlled and on-demand drug release. In this review, the methods behind nanoparticle mediated hyperthermia, namely material design, external stimuli response and energy conversion will be discussed and critically analysed. We will address the most relevant studies on hyperthermia and temperature triggered drug release for cancer treatment. Finally, the advantages, difficulties and challenges of this therapeutic strategy will be discussed, while giving insight for future developments.
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2
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Tamarov K, Wang JTW, Kari J, Happonen E, Vesavaara I, Niemelä M, Perämäki P, Al-Jamal KT, Xu W, Lehto VP. Comparison between Fluorescence Imaging and Elemental Analysis to Determine Biodistribution of Inorganic Nanoparticles with Strong Light Absorption. ACS APPLIED MATERIALS & INTERFACES 2021; 13:40392-40400. [PMID: 34405988 PMCID: PMC8414481 DOI: 10.1021/acsami.1c11875] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2021] [Accepted: 07/30/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Black porous silicon nanoparticles (BPSi NPs) are known as highly efficient infrared light absorbers that are well-suitable for photothermal therapy (PTT) and photoacoustic imaging (PAI). PTT and PAI require a sufficient number of effectively light-absorbing NPs to be accumulated in tumor after intravenous administration. Herein, biodistribution of PEGylated BPSi NPs with different sizes (i.e., 140, 200, and 300 nm in diameter) is investigated after intravenous administration in mice. BPSi NPs were conjugated with fluorescent dyes Cy5.5 and Cy7.5 to track them in vitro and in vivo, respectively. Optical imaging with an in vivo imaging system (IVIS) was found to be an inadequate technique to assess the biodistribution of the dye-labeled BPSi NPs in vivo because the intrinsic strong absorbance of the BPSi NPs interfered fluorescence detection. This challenge was resolved via the use of inductively coupled plasma optical emission spectrometry to analyze ex vivo the silicon content in different tissues and tumors. The results indicated that most of the polyethylene glycol-coated BPSi NPs were found to accumulate in the liver and spleen after intravenous injection. The smallest 140 nm particles accumulated the most in tumors at an amount of 9.5 ± 3.4% of the injected dose (concentration of 0.18 ± 0.08 mg/mL), the amount known to produce sufficient heat for cancer PTT. Furthermore, the findings from the present study also suggest that techniques other than optical imaging should be considered to study the organ biodistribution of NPs with strong light absorbance properties.
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Affiliation(s)
- Konstantin Tamarov
- Department
of Applied Physics, Faculty of Science and Forestry, University of Eastern Finland, Kuopio 70211, Finland
| | - Julie Tzu-Wen Wang
- School
of Cancer and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Faculty of Life Sciences &
Medicine, King’s College London, London SE1 9NH, U.K.
| | - Juuso Kari
- Department
of Applied Physics, Faculty of Science and Forestry, University of Eastern Finland, Kuopio 70211, Finland
| | - Emilia Happonen
- Department
of Applied Physics, Faculty of Science and Forestry, University of Eastern Finland, Kuopio 70211, Finland
| | - Ilkka Vesavaara
- Research
Unit of Sustainable Chemistry, University
of Oulu, Oulu 90570, Finland
| | - Matti Niemelä
- Research
Unit of Sustainable Chemistry, University
of Oulu, Oulu 90570, Finland
| | - Paavo Perämäki
- Research
Unit of Sustainable Chemistry, University
of Oulu, Oulu 90570, Finland
| | - Khuloud T. Al-Jamal
- School
of Cancer and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Faculty of Life Sciences &
Medicine, King’s College London, London SE1 9NH, U.K.
| | - Wujun Xu
- Department
of Applied Physics, Faculty of Science and Forestry, University of Eastern Finland, Kuopio 70211, Finland
| | - Vesa-Pekka Lehto
- Department
of Applied Physics, Faculty of Science and Forestry, University of Eastern Finland, Kuopio 70211, Finland
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3
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Chen YS, Zhao Y, Beinat C, Zlitni A, Hsu EC, Chen DH, Achterberg F, Wang H, Stoyanova T, Dionne J, Gambhir SS. Ultra-high-frequency radio-frequency acoustic molecular imaging with saline nanodroplets in living subjects. NATURE NANOTECHNOLOGY 2021; 16:717-724. [PMID: 33782588 PMCID: PMC8454903 DOI: 10.1038/s41565-021-00869-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/04/2019] [Accepted: 01/28/2021] [Indexed: 05/18/2023]
Abstract
Molecular imaging is a crucial technique in clinical diagnostics but it relies on radioactive tracers or strong magnetic fields that are unsuitable for many patients, particularly infants and pregnant women. Ultra-high-frequency radio-frequency acoustic (UHF-RF-acoustic) imaging using non-ionizing RF pulses allows deep-tissue imaging with sub-millimetre spatial resolution. However, lack of biocompatible and targetable contrast agents has prevented the successful in vivo application of UHF-RF-acoustic imaging. Here we report our development of targetable nanodroplets for UHF-RF-acoustic molecular imaging of cancers. We synthesize all-liquid nanodroplets containing hypertonic saline that are stable for at least 2 weeks and can produce high-intensity UHF-RF-acoustic signals. Compared with concentration-matched iron oxide nanoparticles, our nanodroplets produce at least 1,600 times higher UHF-RF-acoustic signals at the same imaging depth. We demonstrate in vivo imaging using the targeted nanodroplets in a prostate cancer xenograft mouse model expressing gastrin release protein receptor (GRPR), and show that targeting specificity is increased by more than 2-fold compared with untargeted nanodroplets or prostate cancer cells not expressing this receptor.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yun-Sheng Chen
- Department of Radiology, School of Medicine, Canary Center for Cancer Early Detection, Molecular Imaging Program at Stanford, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign, Urbana, IL 61801
| | - Yang Zhao
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign, Urbana, IL 61801
| | - Corinne Beinat
- Department of Radiology, School of Medicine, Canary Center for Cancer Early Detection, Molecular Imaging Program at Stanford, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305
| | - Aimen Zlitni
- Department of Radiology, School of Medicine, Canary Center for Cancer Early Detection, Molecular Imaging Program at Stanford, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305
| | - En-Chi Hsu
- Department of Radiology, School of Medicine, Canary Center for Cancer Early Detection, Molecular Imaging Program at Stanford, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305
| | - Dong-Hua Chen
- Department of Structural Biology, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305
| | - Friso Achterberg
- Department of Radiology, School of Medicine, Canary Center for Cancer Early Detection, Molecular Imaging Program at Stanford, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305
| | - Hanwei Wang
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign, Urbana, IL 61801
| | - Tanya Stoyanova
- Department of Radiology, School of Medicine, Canary Center for Cancer Early Detection, Molecular Imaging Program at Stanford, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305
| | - Jennifer Dionne
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305
| | - Sanjiv Sam Gambhir
- Department of Radiology, School of Medicine, Canary Center for Cancer Early Detection, Molecular Imaging Program at Stanford, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305
- Department of Bioengineering, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305
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4
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Huang Y, Omar M, Tian W, Lopez-Schier H, Westmeyer GG, Chmyrov A, Sergiadis G, Ntziachristos V. Noninvasive visualization of electrical conductivity in tissues at the micrometer scale. SCIENCE ADVANCES 2021; 7:eabd1505. [PMID: 33980478 PMCID: PMC8115913 DOI: 10.1126/sciadv.abd1505] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/10/2020] [Accepted: 03/23/2021] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Despite its importance in regulating cellular or tissue function, electrical conductivity can only be visualized in tissue indirectly as voltage potentials using fluorescent techniques, or directly with radio waves. These either requires invasive procedures like genetic modification or suffers from limited resolution. Here, we introduce radio-frequency thermoacoustic mesoscopy (RThAM) for the noninvasive imaging of conductivity by exploiting the direct absorption of near-field ultrashort radio-frequency pulses to stimulate the emission of broadband ultrasound waves. Detection of ultrasound rather than radio waves enables micrometer-scale resolutions, over several millimeters of tissue depth. We confirm an imaging resolution of <30 μm in phantoms and demonstrate microscopic imaging of conductivity correlating to physical structures in 1- and 512-cell zebrafish embryos, as well as larvae. These results support RThAM as a promising method for high-resolution, label-free assessment of conductivity in tissues.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuanhui Huang
- Institute for Biological and Medical Imaging (IBMI), Helmholtz Zentrum München, D-85764 Neuherberg, Germany
- Chair of Biological Imaging at the Central Institute for Translational Cancer Research (TranslaTUM), School of Medicine, Technical University of Munich, D-81675 Munich, Germany
| | - Murad Omar
- Institute for Biological and Medical Imaging (IBMI), Helmholtz Zentrum München, D-85764 Neuherberg, Germany
- Chair of Biological Imaging at the Central Institute for Translational Cancer Research (TranslaTUM), School of Medicine, Technical University of Munich, D-81675 Munich, Germany
| | - Weili Tian
- Research Unit Sensory Biology and Organogenesis, Helmholtz Zentrum München, D-85764 Neuherberg, Germany
| | - Hernán Lopez-Schier
- Research Unit Sensory Biology and Organogenesis, Helmholtz Zentrum München, D-85764 Neuherberg, Germany
| | - Gil Gregor Westmeyer
- Institute for Biological and Medical Imaging (IBMI), Helmholtz Zentrum München, D-85764 Neuherberg, Germany
- Institute of Developmental Genetics (IDG), Helmholtz Zentrum München, D-85764 Neuherberg, Germany
| | - Andriy Chmyrov
- Institute for Biological and Medical Imaging (IBMI), Helmholtz Zentrum München, D-85764 Neuherberg, Germany
- Chair of Biological Imaging at the Central Institute for Translational Cancer Research (TranslaTUM), School of Medicine, Technical University of Munich, D-81675 Munich, Germany
| | - George Sergiadis
- Institute for Biological and Medical Imaging (IBMI), Helmholtz Zentrum München, D-85764 Neuherberg, Germany
- Chair of Biological Imaging at the Central Institute for Translational Cancer Research (TranslaTUM), School of Medicine, Technical University of Munich, D-81675 Munich, Germany
- Suzhou Institute of Biomedical Engineering and Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 215163 Suzhou, China
| | - Vasilis Ntziachristos
- Institute for Biological and Medical Imaging (IBMI), Helmholtz Zentrum München, D-85764 Neuherberg, Germany.
- Chair of Biological Imaging at the Central Institute for Translational Cancer Research (TranslaTUM), School of Medicine, Technical University of Munich, D-81675 Munich, Germany
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5
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Mocan T, Stiufiuc R, Popa C, Nenu I, Pestean C, Nagy AL, Mocan LP, Leucuta DC, Hajjar NA, Sparchez Z. Percutaneous ultrasound guided PEG-coated gold nanoparticles enhanced radiofrequency ablation in liver. Sci Rep 2021; 11:1316. [PMID: 33446793 PMCID: PMC7809408 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-020-79917-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/29/2020] [Accepted: 11/23/2020] [Indexed: 01/22/2023] Open
Abstract
To investigate the effects of PEG-coated gold nanoparticles on ablation zone volumes following in vivo radiofrequency ablation of porcine liver. This prospective study was performed following institutional animal care and committee approval was used. Radiofrequency ablations were performed in the livers of ten Sus scrofa domesticus swines. During each ablation, 10 mL (mL) of Peg-coated gold nanoparticles at two different concentrations (0.5 mg/mL and 0.01 mg/mL) were injected through the electrode channel into the target zone. For the control group, 10 mL of physiological saline was used. Five to ten minutes after each ablation, contrast enhanced ultrasound (CEUS) was performed to evaluate the volume of the coagulation zone. On day five we performed another CEUS and the animals were sacrificed. Treated tissues were explanted for quantification of the ablation zones' volumes. Hematoxylin and eosin (H&E) staining was also performed for histologic analysis. A total of 30 ablations were performed in the livers. The mean coagulation zone volume as measured by CEUS on day 5 after RFA was: 21.69 ± 3.39 cm3, 19.22 ± 5.77 cm3, and 8.80 ± 3.33 cm3 for N1, N2 and PS respectively. The coagulation zone volume after N1 and N2 treatments was significantly higher compared to PS treatment (p < 0.001 and p = 0.025 respectively). There was no difference between N1 and N2 treatment (p = 0.60). In our proof-of concept, pilot study we have shown for the first time that when injected directly into the target tissue during RFA, gold nanoparticles can substantially increase the coagulation zone.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tudor Mocan
- 3rd Medical Department, "Iuliu Hatieganu" University of Medicine and Pharmacy Cluj-Napoca, Cluj-Napoca, Romania
| | - Rares Stiufiuc
- Department of Bionanoscopy, MedFuture Research Center for Advanced Medicine, "Iuliu Hatieganu" University of Medicine and Pharmacy, Pasteur 4-6, 400337, Cluj-Napoca, Romania
| | - Calin Popa
- 3rd Surgical Department, "Iuliu Hatieganu" University of Medicine and Pharmacy Cluj-Napoca, Cluj-Napoca, Romania
| | - Iuliana Nenu
- 3rd Medical Department, "Iuliu Hatieganu" University of Medicine and Pharmacy Cluj-Napoca, Cluj-Napoca, Romania
| | - Cosmin Pestean
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine, Calea Manastur no. 3-5, 400372, Cluj-Napoca, Romania
| | - Andras Laszlo Nagy
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine, Calea Manastur no. 3-5, 400372, Cluj-Napoca, Romania
| | - Lavinia Patricia Mocan
- Histology Department, "Iuliu Hatieganu" University of Medicine and Pharmacy Cluj-Napoca, Cluj-Napoca, Romania
| | - Daniel Corneliu Leucuta
- Medical Informatics and Biostatistics Department, "Iuliu Hatieganu" University of Medicine and Pharmacy, Cluj-Napoca, Romania
| | - Nadim Al Hajjar
- 3rd Surgical Department, "Iuliu Hatieganu" University of Medicine and Pharmacy Cluj-Napoca, Cluj-Napoca, Romania
| | - Zeno Sparchez
- 3rd Medical Department, "Iuliu Hatieganu" University of Medicine and Pharmacy Cluj-Napoca, Cluj-Napoca, Romania.
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6
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Beyk J, Tavakoli H. Selective radiofrequency ablation of tumor by magnetically targeting of multifunctional iron oxide-gold nanohybrid. J Cancer Res Clin Oncol 2019; 145:2199-2209. [PMID: 31309302 DOI: 10.1007/s00432-019-02969-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/25/2019] [Accepted: 07/01/2019] [Indexed: 01/16/2023]
Abstract
PURPOSE Radiofrequency (RF) ablation therapy is of great interest in cancer therapy as it is non-ionizing radiation and can effectively penetrate into the tissue. However, the current RF ablation technique is invasive that requires RF probe insertion into the tissue and generates a non-specific heating. Recently, RF-responsive nanomaterials such as gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) and iron oxide nanoparticles (IONPs) have led to tremendous progress in this area. They have been found to be able to absorb the RF field and induce a localized heating within the target, thereby affording a non-invasive and tumor-specific RF ablation strategy. In the present study, for the first time, we used a hybrid core-shell nanostructure comprising IONPs as the core and AuNPs as the shell (IO@Au) for targeted RF ablation therapy. Due to the magnetic core, the nanohybrid can be directed toward the tumor through a magnet. Moreover, IONPs enable the nanohybrid to be used as a magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) contrast agent. RESULTS In vitro cytotoxicity experiment showed that the combination of IO@Au and 13.56-MHz RF field significantly reduced the viability of cancer cells. Next, during an in vivo experiment, we demonstrated that magnetically targeting of IO@Au to the tumor and subsequent RF exposure dramatically suppressed the tumor growth. CONCLUSION Therefore, the integration of targeting, imaging, and therapeutic performances into IO@Au nanohybrid could afford the promise to improve the effectiveness of RF ablation therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jaber Beyk
- Neuroscience Research Center, Baqiyatallah University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Hassan Tavakoli
- Neuroscience Research Center, Baqiyatallah University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran. .,Department of Physiology and Biophysics, Baqiyatallah University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran.
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7
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Gongalsky M, Gvindzhiliia G, Tamarov K, Shalygina O, Pavlikov A, Solovyev V, Kudryavtsev A, Sivakov V, Osminkina LA. Radiofrequency Hyperthermia of Cancer Cells Enhanced by Silicic Acid Ions Released During the Biodegradation of Porous Silicon Nanowires. ACS OMEGA 2019; 4:10662-10669. [PMID: 31460163 PMCID: PMC6648043 DOI: 10.1021/acsomega.9b01030] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/10/2019] [Accepted: 06/04/2019] [Indexed: 05/09/2023]
Abstract
The radiofrequency (RF) mild hyperthermia effect sensitized by biodegradable nanoparticles is a promising approach for therapy and diagnostics of numerous human diseases including cancer. Herein, we report the significant enhancement of local destruction of cancer cells induced by RF hyperthermia in the presence of degraded low-toxic porous silicon (PSi) nanowires (NWs). Proper selection of RF irradiation time (10 min), intensity, concentration of PSi NWs, and incubation time (24 h) decreased cell viability to 10%, which can be potentially used for cancer treatment. The incubation for 24 h is critical for degradation of PSi NWs and the formation of silicic acid ions H+ and H3SiO4 - in abundance. The ions drastically change the solution conductivity in the vicinity of PSi NWs, which enhances the absorption of RF radiation and increases the hyperthermia effect. The high biodegradability and efficient photoluminescence of PSi NWs were governed by their mesoporous structure. The average size of pores was 10 nm, and the sizes of silicon nanocrystals (quantum dots) were 3-5 nm. Degradation of PSi NWs was observed as a significant decrease of optical absorbance, photoluminescence, and Raman signals of PSi NW suspensions after 24 h of incubation. Localization of PSi NWs at cell membranes revealed by confocal microscopy suggested that thermal poration of membranes could cause cell death. Thus, efficient photoluminescence in combination with RF-induced cell membrane breakdown indicates promising opportunities for theranostic applications of PSi NWs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maxim Gongalsky
- Department
of Physics, Lomonosov Moscow State University, Leninskie Gory 1, 119991 Moscow, Russia
- E-mail: (M.G.)
| | - Georgii Gvindzhiliia
- Department
of Physics, Lomonosov Moscow State University, Leninskie Gory 1, 119991 Moscow, Russia
| | - Konstantin Tamarov
- Department
of Physics, Lomonosov Moscow State University, Leninskie Gory 1, 119991 Moscow, Russia
- University
of Eastern Finland - Kuopio Campus, Yliopistonranta 1, 70210 Kuopio, Finland
| | - Olga Shalygina
- Department
of Physics, Lomonosov Moscow State University, Leninskie Gory 1, 119991 Moscow, Russia
| | - Alexander Pavlikov
- Department
of Physics, Lomonosov Moscow State University, Leninskie Gory 1, 119991 Moscow, Russia
| | - Valery Solovyev
- Institute
of Theoretical and Experimental Biophysics, Russian Academy of Science, Pushchino, 142290 Moscow Region, Russia
| | - Andrey Kudryavtsev
- Institute
of Theoretical and Experimental Biophysics, Russian Academy of Science, Pushchino, 142290 Moscow Region, Russia
| | | | - Liubov A. Osminkina
- Department
of Physics, Lomonosov Moscow State University, Leninskie Gory 1, 119991 Moscow, Russia
- Institute
for Biological Instrumentation of Russian Academy of Sciences, Pushchino 142290, Russia
- E-mail: (L.A.O.)
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8
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Huang Y, Kellnberger S, Sergiadis G, Ntziachristos V. Blood vessel imaging using radiofrequency-induced second harmonic acoustic response. Sci Rep 2018; 8:15522. [PMID: 30341349 PMCID: PMC6195590 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-018-33732-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/15/2018] [Accepted: 10/02/2018] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
We introduce a contrast mechanism for visualizing blood vessels based on radiofrequency-induced second harmonic acoustic (RISHA) signals sensing blood conductivity. We develop a novel imaging system using commonly available inexpensive components, and demonstrate in vivo RISHA visualization of blood vessels based on low-power quasi-continuous radiofrequency excitation of tissue at frequencies of a few MHz. We show how the novel approach also implicitly enables radiofrequency-induced passive ultrasound imaging and can be readily applied to non-invasive imaging of blood vessels ex vivo and in vivo. We discuss the implications of non-invasive conductivity measurements in the context of biomedical applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuanhui Huang
- Helmholtz Zentrum München, Institute for Biological and Medical Imaging (IBMI), Neuherberg, D-85764, Germany.,Technische Universität München, Chair for Biological Imaging, München, D-81675, Germany
| | - Stephan Kellnberger
- Helmholtz Zentrum München, Institute for Biological and Medical Imaging (IBMI), Neuherberg, D-85764, Germany. .,Technische Universität München, Chair for Biological Imaging, München, D-81675, Germany. .,Cardiovascular Research Center, Cardiology Division, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, 02114, USA.
| | - George Sergiadis
- Helmholtz Zentrum München, Institute for Biological and Medical Imaging (IBMI), Neuherberg, D-85764, Germany.,Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, School of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Thessaloniki, 54124, Greece.,Chinese Academy of Sciences, Suzhou Institute of Biomedical Engineering and Technology, Suzhou, 215163, China
| | - Vasilis Ntziachristos
- Helmholtz Zentrum München, Institute for Biological and Medical Imaging (IBMI), Neuherberg, D-85764, Germany. .,Technische Universität München, Chair for Biological Imaging, München, D-81675, Germany.
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