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Abasi S, Aggas JR, Garayar-Leyva GG, Walther BK, Guiseppi-Elie A. Bioelectrical Impedance Spectroscopy for Monitoring Mammalian Cells and Tissues under Different Frequency Domains: A Review. ACS MEASUREMENT SCIENCE AU 2022; 2:495-516. [PMID: 36785772 PMCID: PMC9886004 DOI: 10.1021/acsmeasuresciau.2c00033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/04/2022] [Revised: 08/05/2022] [Accepted: 08/05/2022] [Indexed: 05/13/2023]
Abstract
Bioelectrical impedance analysis and bioelectrical impedance spectroscopy (BIA/BIS) of tissues reveal important information on molecular composition and physical structure that is useful in diagnostics and prognostics. The heterogeneity in structural elements of cells, tissues, organs, and the whole human body, the variability in molecular composition arising from the dynamics of biochemical reactions, and the contributions of inherently electroresponsive components, such as ions, proteins, and polarized membranes, have rendered bioimpedance challenging to interpret but also a powerful evaluation and monitoring technique in biomedicine. BIA/BIS has thus become the basis for a wide range of diagnostic and monitoring systems such as plethysmography and tomography. The use of BIA/BIS arises from (i) being a noninvasive and safe measurement modality, (ii) its ease of miniaturization, and (iii) multiple technological formats for its biomedical implementation. Considering the dependency of the absolute and relative values of impedance on frequency, and the uniqueness of the origins of the α-, β-, δ-, and γ-dispersions, this targeted review discusses biological events and underlying principles that are employed to analyze the impedance data based on the frequency range. The emergence of BIA/BIS in wearable devices and its relevance to the Internet of Medical Things (IoMT) are introduced and discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sara Abasi
- Center
for Bioelectronics, Biosensors and Biochips (C3B®), Department
of Biomedical Engineering, Texas A&M
University, 400 Bizzell Street, College Station, Texas 77843, United States
- Cell
Culture Media Services, Cytiva, 100 Results Way, Marlborough, Massachusetts 01752, United States
| | - John R. Aggas
- Center
for Bioelectronics, Biosensors and Biochips (C3B®), Department
of Biomedical Engineering, Texas A&M
University, 400 Bizzell Street, College Station, Texas 77843, United States
- Test
Development, Roche Diagnostics, 9115 Hague Road, Indianapolis, Indiana 46256, United
States
| | - Guillermo G. Garayar-Leyva
- Center
for Bioelectronics, Biosensors and Biochips (C3B®), Department
of Biomedical Engineering, Texas A&M
University, 400 Bizzell Street, College Station, Texas 77843, United States
- Department
of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Texas A&M University, 400 Bizzell Street, College Station, Texas 77843, United States
| | - Brandon K. Walther
- Center
for Bioelectronics, Biosensors and Biochips (C3B®), Department
of Biomedical Engineering, Texas A&M
University, 400 Bizzell Street, College Station, Texas 77843, United States
- Department
of Cardiovascular Sciences, Houston Methodist
Institute for Academic Medicine and Houston Methodist Research Institute, 6670 Bertner Avenue, Houston, Texas 77030, United States
| | - Anthony Guiseppi-Elie
- Center
for Bioelectronics, Biosensors and Biochips (C3B®), Department
of Biomedical Engineering, Texas A&M
University, 400 Bizzell Street, College Station, Texas 77843, United States
- Department
of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Texas A&M University, 400 Bizzell Street, College Station, Texas 77843, United States
- Department
of Cardiovascular Sciences, Houston Methodist
Institute for Academic Medicine and Houston Methodist Research Institute, 6670 Bertner Avenue, Houston, Texas 77030, United States
- ABTECH Scientific,
Inc., Biotechnology Research Park, 800 East Leigh Street, Richmond, Virginia 23219, United
States
- . Tel.: +1(804)347.9363.
Fax: +1(804)347.9363
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Nguyen DM, Wu Y, Nolin A, Lo CY, Guo T, Dhong C, Martin DC, Kayser LV. Electronically Conductive Hydrogels by in Situ Polymerization of a Water-Soluble EDOT-Derived Monomer. ADVANCED ENGINEERING MATERIALS 2022; 24:2200280. [PMID: 36275121 PMCID: PMC9586015 DOI: 10.1002/adem.202200280] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/25/2022] [Indexed: 05/30/2023]
Abstract
Electronically conductive hydrogels have gained popularity in bioelectronic interfaces because their mechanical properties are similar to biological tissues, potentially preventing scaring in implanted electronics. Hydrogels have low elastic moduli, due to their high water content, which facilitates their integration with biological tissues. To achieve electronically conductive hydrogels, however, requires the integration of conducting polymers or nanoparticles. These “hard” components increase the elastic modulus of the hydrogel, removing their desirable compatibility with biological tissues, or lead to the heterogeneous distribution of the conductive material in the hydrogel scaffold. A general strategy to transform hydrogels into electronically conductive hydrogels without affecting the mechanical properties of the parent hydrogel is still lacking. Herein, a two‐step method is reported for imparting conductivity to a range of different hydrogels by in‐situ polymerization of a water‐soluble and neutral conducting polymer precursor: 3,4–ethylenedioxythiophene diethylene glycol (EDOT‐DEG). The resulting conductive hydrogels are homogenous, have conductivities around 0.3 S m−1, low impedance, and maintain an elastic modulus of 5–15 kPa, which is similar to the preformed hydrogel. The simple preparation and desirable properties of the conductive hydrogels are likely to lead to new materials and applications in tissue engineering, neural interfaces, biosensors, and electrostimulation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dan My Nguyen
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Delaware, Newark, Delaware, 19716, United States
| | - Yuhang Wu
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, University of Delaware, Newark, Delaware, 19716, United States
| | - Abigail Nolin
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, University of Delaware, Newark, Delaware, 19716, United States
| | - Chun-Yuan Lo
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Delaware, Newark, Delaware, 19716, United States
| | - Tianzheng Guo
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, University of Delaware, Newark, Delaware, 19716, United States
| | - Charles Dhong
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, University of Delaware, Newark, Delaware, 19716, United States
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Delaware, Newark, Delaware, 19716, United States
| | - David C Martin
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, University of Delaware, Newark, Delaware, 19716, United States
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Delaware, Newark, Delaware, 19716, United States
| | - Laure V Kayser
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Delaware, Newark, Delaware, 19716, United States
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, University of Delaware, Newark, Delaware, 19716, United States
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Guo X, Li J, Wang F, Zhang J, Zhang J, Shi Y, Pan L. Application of conductive polymer hydrogels in flexible electronics. JOURNAL OF POLYMER SCIENCE 2022. [DOI: 10.1002/pol.20210933] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Xin Guo
- Collaborative Innovation Center of Advanced Microstructures, School of Electronic Science and Engineering Nanjing University Nanjing Jiangsu China
| | - Jiean Li
- Collaborative Innovation Center of Advanced Microstructures, School of Electronic Science and Engineering Nanjing University Nanjing Jiangsu China
| | - Fanyu Wang
- Collaborative Innovation Center of Advanced Microstructures, School of Electronic Science and Engineering Nanjing University Nanjing Jiangsu China
| | - Jia‐Han Zhang
- Collaborative Innovation Center of Advanced Microstructures, School of Electronic Science and Engineering Nanjing University Nanjing Jiangsu China
| | - Jing Zhang
- Collaborative Innovation Center of Advanced Microstructures, School of Electronic Science and Engineering Nanjing University Nanjing Jiangsu China
| | - Yi Shi
- Collaborative Innovation Center of Advanced Microstructures, School of Electronic Science and Engineering Nanjing University Nanjing Jiangsu China
| | - Lijia Pan
- Collaborative Innovation Center of Advanced Microstructures, School of Electronic Science and Engineering Nanjing University Nanjing Jiangsu China
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Li G, Li C, Li G, Yu D, Song Z, Wang H, Liu X, Liu H, Liu W. Development of Conductive Hydrogels for Fabricating Flexible Strain Sensors. SMALL (WEINHEIM AN DER BERGSTRASSE, GERMANY) 2022; 18:e2101518. [PMID: 34658130 DOI: 10.1002/smll.202101518] [Citation(s) in RCA: 101] [Impact Index Per Article: 50.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/15/2021] [Revised: 08/07/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Conductive hydrogels can be prepared by incorporating various conductive materials into polymeric network hydrogels. In recent years, conductive hydrogels have been developed and applied in the field of strain sensors owing to their unique properties, such as electrical conductivity, mechanical properties, self-healing, and anti-freezing properties. These remarkable properties allow conductive hydrogel-based strain sensors to show excellent performance for identifying external stimuli and detecting human body movement, even at subzero temperatures. This review summarizes the properties of conductive hydrogels and their application in the fabrication of strain sensors working in different modes. Finally, a brief prospectus for the development of conductive hydrogels in the future is provided.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gang Li
- State Key Laboratory of Biobased Materials and Green Papermaking, Qilu University of Technology, Shandong Academy of Science, Jinan, Shandong, 250353, China
| | - Chenglong Li
- State Key Laboratory of Biobased Materials and Green Papermaking, Qilu University of Technology, Shandong Academy of Science, Jinan, Shandong, 250353, China
| | - Guodong Li
- State Key Laboratory of Biobased Materials and Green Papermaking, Qilu University of Technology, Shandong Academy of Science, Jinan, Shandong, 250353, China
| | - Dehai Yu
- State Key Laboratory of Biobased Materials and Green Papermaking, Qilu University of Technology, Shandong Academy of Science, Jinan, Shandong, 250353, China
| | - Zhaoping Song
- State Key Laboratory of Biobased Materials and Green Papermaking, Qilu University of Technology, Shandong Academy of Science, Jinan, Shandong, 250353, China
| | - Huili Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Biobased Materials and Green Papermaking, Qilu University of Technology, Shandong Academy of Science, Jinan, Shandong, 250353, China
| | - Xiaona Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Biobased Materials and Green Papermaking, Qilu University of Technology, Shandong Academy of Science, Jinan, Shandong, 250353, China
| | - Hong Liu
- Institute for Advanced Interdisciplinary Research, University of Jinan (iAIR), Jinan, 250022, China
- State Key Laboratory of Crystal Materials, Shandong University, Jinan, 250100, P. R. China
| | - Wenxia Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Biobased Materials and Green Papermaking, Qilu University of Technology, Shandong Academy of Science, Jinan, Shandong, 250353, China
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Aggas JR, Abasi S, Phipps JF, Podstawczyk DA, Guiseppi-Elie A. Microfabricated and 3-D printed electroconductive hydrogels of PEDOT:PSS and their application in bioelectronics. Biosens Bioelectron 2020; 168:112568. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bios.2020.112568] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/26/2020] [Revised: 08/19/2020] [Accepted: 08/25/2020] [Indexed: 01/23/2023]
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Wang M, Kee S, Barker D, Travas-Sejdic J. Highly stretchable, solution-processable, and crosslinkable poly(3,4-ethylenedioxithiophene)-based conjugated polymers. Eur Polym J 2020. [DOI: 10.1016/j.eurpolymj.2020.109508] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
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Ma R, Chou SY, Xie Y, Pei Q. Morphological/nanostructural control toward intrinsically stretchable organic electronics. Chem Soc Rev 2019; 48:1741-1786. [DOI: 10.1039/c8cs00834e] [Citation(s) in RCA: 91] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/29/2023]
Abstract
The development of intrinsically stretchable electronics poses great challenges in synthesizing elastomeric conductors, semiconductors and dielectric materials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rujun Ma
- Soft Materials Research Laboratory
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering
- Henry Samueli School of Engineering and Applied Science
- University of California
- Los Angeles
| | - Shu-Yu Chou
- Soft Materials Research Laboratory
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering
- Henry Samueli School of Engineering and Applied Science
- University of California
- Los Angeles
| | - Yu Xie
- Soft Materials Research Laboratory
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering
- Henry Samueli School of Engineering and Applied Science
- University of California
- Los Angeles
| | - Qibing Pei
- Soft Materials Research Laboratory
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering
- Henry Samueli School of Engineering and Applied Science
- University of California
- Los Angeles
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Kayser LV, Russell MD, Rodriquez D, Abuhamdieh SN, Dhong C, Khan S, Stein AN, Ramírez J, Lipomi DJ. RAFT Polymerization of an Intrinsically Stretchable Water-Soluble Block Copolymer Scaffold for PEDOT. CHEMISTRY OF MATERIALS : A PUBLICATION OF THE AMERICAN CHEMICAL SOCIETY 2018; 30:4459-4468. [PMID: 30930534 PMCID: PMC6435338 DOI: 10.1021/acs.chemmater.8b02040] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/20/2023]
Abstract
Despite the common association of π-conjugated polymers with flexible and stretchable electronics, these materials can be rigid and brittle unless they are designed otherwise. For example, low modulus, high extensibility, and high toughness are treated as prerequisites for integration with soft and biological structures. One of the most successful and commercially available organic electronic materials is the conductive and brittle polyelectrolyte complex poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene):poly(styrene sulfonate) (PEDOT:PSS). To make this material stretchable, additives such as ionic liquids must be used. These additives may render the composite incompatible with biological tissue. In this work, we describe the synthesis of an intrinsically stretchable variant of the conductive polymer PEDOT:PSS that is free of additives. The approach involves the synthesis of a block copolymer comprising soft segments of poly(polyethylene glycol methyl ether acrylate) (PPEGMEA) and hard segments of poly(styrene sulfonate) (PSS) using a reversible addition-fragmentation chain transfer (RAFT) polymerization. Subsequently, we used the newly synthesized ionic elastomer PSS-b-PPEGMEA as a matrix for the oxidative polymerization of EDOT. The resulting polyelectrolyte elastomer, PEDOT:PSS-b-PPEGMEA, can withstand elongations up to 128% and has a toughness up to 10.1 MJ m-3. While the polyelectrolyte elastomer is not as conductive as the commercial material, the toughness and extensibility are each more than an order of magnitude higher. Moreover, the electrical conductivity of the polyelectrolyte elastomer exhibits minimal decrease with strain within the elastic regime. We then compared the block copolymer to physical blends of PEDOT:PSS and PPEGMEA. The blend material had a much lower failure strain of only 38% and a maximum toughness of 4.9 MJ m-3. This approach thus emphasizes the importance of the covalent linking of the PSS and PPEGMEA blocks. Furthermore, we demonstrate that the conductivity of scratched films can be restored upon exposure to water.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laure V. Kayser
- Department of NanoEngineering, University of California, San Diego, 9500 Gilman Drive, Mail Code 0448, La Jolla, CA 92093-0448
| | - Madeleine D. Russell
- Department of NanoEngineering, University of California, San Diego, 9500 Gilman Drive, Mail Code 0448, La Jolla, CA 92093-0448
| | - Daniel Rodriquez
- Department of NanoEngineering, University of California, San Diego, 9500 Gilman Drive, Mail Code 0448, La Jolla, CA 92093-0448
| | - Sami N. Abuhamdieh
- Department of NanoEngineering, University of California, San Diego, 9500 Gilman Drive, Mail Code 0448, La Jolla, CA 92093-0448
| | - Charles Dhong
- Department of NanoEngineering, University of California, San Diego, 9500 Gilman Drive, Mail Code 0448, La Jolla, CA 92093-0448
| | - Salik Khan
- Department of NanoEngineering, University of California, San Diego, 9500 Gilman Drive, Mail Code 0448, La Jolla, CA 92093-0448
| | - Alexander N. Stein
- Department of NanoEngineering, University of California, San Diego, 9500 Gilman Drive, Mail Code 0448, La Jolla, CA 92093-0448
| | - Julian Ramírez
- Department of NanoEngineering, University of California, San Diego, 9500 Gilman Drive, Mail Code 0448, La Jolla, CA 92093-0448
| | - Darren J. Lipomi
- Department of NanoEngineering, University of California, San Diego, 9500 Gilman Drive, Mail Code 0448, La Jolla, CA 92093-0448
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