A Semi-Automated, High-Throughput Approach for the Synthesis and Identification of Highly Photo-Cytotoxic Iridium Complexes

The discovery of new compounds with pharmacological properties is usually a lengthy, laborious and expensive process. Thus, there is increasing interest in developing workflows that allow for the rapid synthesis and evaluation of libraries of compounds with the aim of identifying leads for further drug development. Herein, we apply combinatorial synthesis to build a library of 90 iridium(III) complexes (81 of which are new) over two synthesise-and-test cycles, with the aim of identifying potential agents for photodynamic therapy. We demonstrate the power of this approach by identifying highly active complexes that are well-tolerated in the dark but display very low nM phototoxicity against cancer cells. To build a detailed structure-activity relationship for this class of compounds we have used density functional theory (DFT) calculations to determine some key electronic parameters and study correlations with the experimental data. Finally, we present an optimised semi-automated synthesise-and-test protocol to obtain multiplex data within 72 hours.

Synthesis, characterization, molecular docking, RNA-sequence and anticancer efficacy evaluation in vitro of ruthenium(II) complexes on B16 cells

In recent years, the studies of the ruthenium(II) complexes on anticancer activity have been paid great attention, many Ru(II) complexes possess high anticancer efficiency. In this paper, three ligands CPIP (2-(4-chlorophenyl)-1H-imidazo[4,5-f][1,10]phenanthroline), DCPIP (2-(3,4-dichlorophenyl)-1H-imidazo[4,5-f][1,10]phenanthroline), TCPIP (2-(2,3,5-trichlorophenyl)-1H-imidazo[4,5-f][1,10]phenanthroline) and their three ruthenium (II) complexes [Ru(dip)2(CPIP)](PF6)2 (1, dip = 4,7-diphenyl-1,10-phenanthroline), [Ru(dip)2(DCPIP)](PF6)2 (2) and [Ru(dip)2(TCPIP)](PF6)2 (3) were synthesized and characterized. 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazole-2-yl)-2,5-biphenyl tetrazolium bromide (MTT) assay was used to investigate in vitro cytotoxicity of complexes against various cancer cells. The results showed that complexes 1-3 exhibited pronounced cytotoxic effect on B16 cells with low IC50 values of 7.2 ± 0.1, 11.7 ± 0.6 and 1.2 ± 0.2 μM, respectively. The 3D model demonstrated that the complexes can validly prevent the cell proliferation. Apoptosis determined using Annexin V-FITC/PI double staining revealed that complexes 1-3 can effectively induce apoptosis in B16 cells. The intracellular localization of 1-3 in the mitochondria, the levels of intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS), the opening of mitochondrial permeability transition pore as well as the decline of mitochondrial membrane potential were investigated, which demonstrated that the complexes 1-3 led to apoptosis via a ROS-mediated mitochondrial dysfunction pathway. The RNA-sequence indicated that the complexes upregulate the expression of 74 genes and downregulate the expression of 81 genes. The molecular docking showed that the complexes interact with the proteins through hydrogen bond, π-cation and π-π interaction. The results show that ruthenium(II) complexes 1, 2 and 3 can block tumor cell growth and induce cell death through autophagy and ROS-mediated mitochondrial dysfunction pathways.

Biosynthesis of monoterpenoid and sesquiterpenoid as natural flavors and fragrances

Terpenoids are a large class of plant-derived compounds, that constitute the main components of essential oils and are widely used as natural flavors and fragrances. The biosynthesis approach presents a promising alternative route in terpenoid production compared to plant extraction or chemical synthesis. In the past decade, the production of terpenoids using biotechnology has attracted broad attention from both academia and the industry. With the growing market of flavor and fragrance, the production of terpenoids directed by synthetic biology shows great potential in promoting future market prospects. Here, we reviewed the latest advances in terpenoid biosynthesis. The engineering strategies for biosynthetic terpenoids were systematically summarized from the enzyme, metabolic, and cellular dimensions. Additionally, we analyzed the key challenges from laboratory production to scalable production, such as key enzyme improvement, terpenoid toxicity, and volatility loss. To provide comprehensive technical guidance, we collected milestone examples of biosynthetic mono- and sesquiterpenoids, compared the current application status of chemical synthesis and biosynthesis in terpenoid production, and discussed the cost drivers based on the data of techno-economic assessment. It is expected to provide critical insights into developing translational research of terpenoid biomanufacturing.

N-Heterocyclic Carbene-Iridium Complexes as Photosensitizers for In Vitro Photodynamic Therapy to Trigger Non-Apoptotic Cell Death in Cancer Cells

A series of seven novel iridium complexes were synthetized and characterized as potential photosensitizers for photodynamic therapy (PDT) applications. Among them, four complexes were evaluated in vitro for their anti-proliferative activity with and without irradiation on a panel of five cancer cell lines, namely PC-3 (prostate cancer), T24 (bladder cancer), MCF7 (breast cancer), A549 (lung cancer) and HeLa (cervix cancer), and two non-cancerous cell models (NIH-3T3 fibroblasts and MC3T3 osteoblasts). After irradiation at 458 nm, all tested complexes showed a strong selectivity against cancer cells, with a selectivity index (SI) ranging from 8 to 34 compared with non-cancerous cells. The cytotoxic effect of all these complexes was found to be independent of the anti-apoptotic protein Bcl-xL. The compound exhibiting the best selectivity, complex 4a, was selected for further investigations. Complex 4a was mainly localized in the mitochondria. We found that the loss of cell viability and the decrease in ATP and GSH content induced by complex 4a were independent of both Bcl-xL and caspase activation, leading to a non-apoptotic cell death. By counteracting the intrinsic or acquired resistance to apoptosis associated with cancer, complex 4a could be an interesting therapeutic alternative to be studied in preclinical models.

Light activation of iridium(III) complexes driving ROS production and DNA damage enhances anticancer activity in A549 cells

The work aimed to synthesize and characterize two iridium(III) complexes [Ir(ppy)₂(IPPH)](PF₆) (Ir1, IPPH = (2S,3R,5S,6R)-2-(2-(1H-imidazo[4,5-f][1,10]phenanthrolin-2-yl)phenoxy)-6-(hydroxymethyl)tetrahydro-2H-pyran-3,4,5-triol, ppy = 2-phenylpyridine), [Ir(piq)₂(IPPH)](PF₆) (Ir2, piq = 1-phenylisoquinoline). The cytotoxicity of the complexes against BEL-7402, A549, HCT-116, B16 cancer cells and normal LO2 was evaluated through 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazole-2-yl)-2,5-biphenyl tetrazolium bromide (MTT) method. The complexes show no cytotoxic activity (IC₅₀ > 100 μM) against these cancer cells, while their cytotoxicity can significantly be elevated upon illumination. The IC₅₀ values range from 0.2 ± 0.05 to 35.5 ± 3.5 μM. The cellular uptake, endoplasmic reticulum and mitochondria localization, reactive oxygen species, the change of mitochondrial membrane potential, γ-H2AX levels, cycle arrest, apoptosis and the expression of B-cell lymphoma-2 were investigated. The calreticulin (CRT), heat shock protein 70 (HSP70), high mobility group box 1 (HMGB1) were explored. This study demonstrates that photoactivatable complexes induce cell death in A549 through ROS-mediated endoplasmic reticulum stress-mitochondrial pathway, DNA damage pathways, immunogenic cell death (ICD), activation of PI3K/AKT signaling pathway and inhibit the cell growth at S phase.

Involvement of Pca1 in ROS-mediated apoptotic cell death induced by alpha-thujone in the fission yeast (Schizosaccharomyces pombe)

Alpha-thujone, widely used in beverages (1-5 mg/kg), is known to have cytotoxic effects, but the mode of action and the role of potential apoptotic proteins in yeast cell death should be unraveled. In this study, we used Schizosaccharomyces pombe, which is a promising unicellular model organism in mechanistic toxicology and cell biology, to investigate the involvement of pro-apoptotic factors in alpha-thujone-induced cell death. We showed alpha-thujone-induced ROS accumulation-dependent cytotoxicity and apoptosis. In addition, we used superoxide dismutase-deficient cells (sod1 and sod2 mutants) to understand the effect of oxidative stress. Alpha-thujone caused significant cytotoxicity and apoptotic cell death, particularly in sod mutants. Moreover, two potential apoptotic factors, pca1 and pnu1 (pombe caspase-1 and pombe nuc1) were investigated to understand which factor mediates alpha-thujone-induced cell death. Pca1-deficient cells showed increased survival rates and reduced apoptosis in comparison to parental cells after chemical treatment while pnu1 mutation did not cause any significant change and the response was found identical as of parental cells. Yeast responded to alpha-thujone in caspase-dependent manner which was very similar to that for acetic acid. In conclusion, alfa-thujone-induced apoptosis and accounting mechanisms, which were mediated by ROS and driven by Pca1, were clarified in the unicellular model, S. pombe.

New iridium bis-terpyridine complexes: synthesis, characterization, antibiofilm and anticancer potentials

This study represents synthesis, characterization, screening of antibiofilm efficacy, and cytotoxicity of iridium bis-terpyridine complexes. The complexes were characterized by NMR, MS, FTIR, UV/Visible, and fluorescence spectroscopies. The efficacy of biofilm inhibition and eradication of iridium complexes was evaluated using a crystal violet assay test and verified by fluorescence microscopy. Cytotoxicity and apoptosis analysis of iridium complexes were determined in this study. The results of our study revealed that three iridium complexes had the potential to inhibit biofilm formation and moderate the ability to destroy pre-formed biofilm of S. aureus ATCC 29,213. 250 µM concentration of synthesized complexes showed the highest antibiofilm activity (75% for Ir1, 90% for Ir2, and 71% for Ir3). The significant inhibition obtained at 6.25 µM concentration of Ir2 and Ir3 revealed the potential of our samples. Also, Ir1 and Ir2 complexes had a good capacity to destroy pre-formed biofilm. The results clearly showed that iridium complexes have cytotoxic activity towards colon cancer (Caco-2) and liver cancer (HepG2) cell lines without affecting non-cancerous cells (HEK293) at applied doses. Moreover, tested compounds induced apoptosis in these cancer cells. All of these results showed that iridium complexes had possessed the ability to inhibit or destroy pre-formed biofilm and could be developed as an effective agent against bacterial biofilms. Moreover, these pure substances may have valuable anti-cancer activity and it should be confirmed with further studies for therapeutic effects.

Iridium(III) Complex-Loaded Perfluoropropane Nanobubbles for Enhanced Sonodynamic Therapy

Sonodynamic therapy (SDT) is a novel promising approach for the minimally invasive treatment of cancer derived from photodynamic therapy (PDT). In this study, we have explored an effective sonosensitizer for SDT by loading the iridium(III) complex [Ir(ppy)₂(en)] OOCCH₃, where ppy = 2-phenylpyridine and en = ethylenediamine], from now on referred to as Ir, with high photosensitizing ability, into echogenic nanobubbles (Ir-NBs). Akin to photosensitizers, sonosensitizers are acoustically activated by deep-tissue-penetrating low-frequency ultrasound (US) resulting in a localized therapeutic effect attributed to an excessive generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS). The Ir-NB formulation was optimized, and the in vitro characterizations were carried out, including physical properties, acoustic performance, intracellular ROS generation, and cytotoxicity against two human cancer cell lines. Ir-NBs had an average size of 303.3 ± 91.7 nm with a bubble concentration of 9.28 × 10¹⁰ particles/mL immediately following production. We found that the initial Ir feeding concentration had a negligible effect on the NB size, but affected the bubble concentration as well as the acoustic performance of the NBs. Through a combination of sonication and Ir-NBs treatment, an increase of 68.8% and 69.6% cytotoxicity in human ovarian cancer cells (OVCAR-3) and human breast cancer cells (MCF-7), respectively, was observed compared to the application of Ir-NBs alone. Furthermore, Ir-NBs exposed to the US also induced the highest levels of intracellular ROS generation compared to free Ir and free Ir with empty NBs. The combination of these results suggests that the differences in treatment efficacy is a direct result of acoustic cavitation. These results provide evidence that US activated Ir-loaded NBs have the potential to become an effective sonosensitizer for SDT.

Studies of anticancer activity in vivo and in vitro behaviors of liposomes encapsulated iridium(III) complex

Iridium(III) complexes have gained great attention in cancer treatment in recent years. In this paper, we designed and synthesized a new iridium(III) complex [Ir(piq)₂(DQTT)](PF₆) Ir1 (piq = 1-phenylisoquinoline, DQTT = 12-(1,4-dihydroquinoxalin-6-yl)-4,5,9,14-tetraazabenzo[b]triphenylene). The Ir1-loaded PEGylated liposomes (Lipo-Ir1) were prepared using the ethanol injection method. The anticancer activity of the complex and Lipo-Ir1 against SGC-7901 (human gastric adenocarcinoma), A549 (human lung carcinoma), HeLa (human cervical carcinoma), HepG2 (human hepatocellular carcinoma), BEL-7402 (human hepatocellular carcinoma), and normal NIH3T3 (mouse embryonic fibroblasts) was tested by the MTT method. The complex Ir1 shows moderate or low cytotoxicity against the selected cancer cells, whereas the Lipo-Ir1 exhibits high anticancer activity toward the same cancer cells. The apoptosis induced by Lipo-Ir1 was assayed by flow cytometry and Lipo-Ir1 induced apoptosis through increasing intracellular reactive-oxygen species levels, decreasing mitochondrial membrane potential, further promoting cytochrome c release and causing the increase of level of intracellular Ca²⁺. Western blot was used to detect the changes in Bcl-2 family protein and PI3K/AKT pathway proteins. The cloning experiments demonstrated that the Lipo-Ir1 can effectively inhibit cell proliferation. In vivo experiments, Lipo-Ir1 inhibited tumor growth in xenograft nude mice, and the percentage of tumor growth inhibition in vivo was 75.70%. Overall, the liposomes Lipo-Ir1 exhibits higher anticancer activity than Ir1 under the same conditions. These results indicated that Lipo-Ir1 may be a valuable resource for cancer therapy.

Development of four ruthenium polypyridyl complexes as antitumor agents: Design, biological evaluation and mechanism investigation

Ruthenium complexes are expected to be new opportunities for the development of antitumor agents. Herein, four ruthenium polypyridyl complexes ([Ru(bpy)₂(CAPIP)](ClO₄)₂ (Ru(II)-1, bpy = 2,2'-bipyridine; CAPIP = (E)-2-(2-(furan-2-yl)vinyl)-1H-imidazo[4,5-f][1,10]phenanthroline), [Ru(phen)₂(CA-PIP)](ClO₄)₂ (Ru(II)-2, phen = 1,10-phenanthroline), [Ru(dmb)₂(CAPIP)](ClO₄)₂ (Ru(II)-3, dmb = 4,4'-dimethyl-2,2'-bipyridine), [Ru(dmb)₂(ETPIP)](ClO₄)₂ (Ru(II)-4, ETPIP = 2-(4-(thiophen-2-ylethynyl)phenyl)-1H-imidazo[4,5-f][1,10]phen-anthroline)) have been investigated as mitochondria-targeted antitumor metallodrugs. DNA binding studies indicated that target Ru(II) complexes interacts with CT DNA (calf thymus DNA) by an intercalative mode. Cytotoxicity assay results demonstrate that Ru(II) complexes show high cytotoxicity against A549 cells with low IC₅₀ value of 23.6 ± 2.3, 20.1 ± 1.9, 22.7 ± 1.8 and 18.4 ± 2.3 μM, respectively. Flow cytometry and morphological analysis revealed that these Ru(II) complexes can induce apoptosis in A549 cells. Intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) and mitochondrial membrane potential were also investigated by ImageXpress Micro XLS system. The experimental results indicate that the reactive oxygen species in A549 cells increased significantly and mitochondrial membrane potential decreased obviously. In addition, colocalization studies shown these complexes could get to the cytoplasm through the cell membrane and accumulate in the mitochondria. Furthermore, Ru(II) complexes can effectively induces cell cycle arrest at the S phase in A549 cells. Finally, cell invasion assay and quantitative studies were also performed to investigate the mechanism of this process. All in together, this study suggested that these Ru(II) complexes could induce apoptosis in A549 cells through cell cycle arrest and ROS-mediated mitochondrial dysfunction pathway.

Liposomes encapsulated iridium(III) polypyridyl complexes enhance anticancer activity in vitro and in vivo

Three iridium(III) complexes [Ir(ppy)₂(CPIP)](PF₆) (Ir-1, ppy = 2-phenylpyridine, CPIP = 2-(4-chlorophenyl)-1H-imidazo[4,5-f][1,10]phenanthroline), [Ir(ppy)₂(DCPIP)](PF₆) (Ir-2, DCPIP = 2-(3,4-dichlorophenyl)-1H-imidazo[4,5-f][1,10]phenanthroline) and [Ir(ppy)₂(TCPIP)](PF₆) (Ir-3, TCPIP = 2,3,5-trichlorophenyl)-1H-imidazo[4,5-f][1,10]phenanthroline) were synthesized and characterized. The complexes Ir-1, Ir-2 and Ir-3 were encapsulated in liposomes to form Ir-1-Lipo, Ir-2-Lipo and Ir-3-Lipo. Morphology, size distribution, and zeta potential of liposomes were examined by transmission electron microscopy (TEM) and Zetasizer. The cytotoxic activity in vitro of Ir-1, Ir-2 and Ir-3 against cancer A549, HTC-116, HepG2, BEL-7402, Eca-109, B16, HeLa SGC-7901 and normal NIH3T3 cells was evaluated by 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazole-2-yl)-2,5-biphenyl tetrazolium bromide (MTT) method. Ir-2 and Ir-3 show no cytotoxic activity against the selected cancer cells, and Ir-1 displays moderate cytotoxic effect on the cell growth in A549 cells. However, Ir-1, Ir-2 and Ir-3 were encapsulated in liposomes, the cytotoxic activity was greatly enhanced. In particular, Ir-1-Lipo and Ir-2-Lipo can effectively inhibit the cell growth in A549 cells with a low IC₅₀ value of 3.1 ± 0.3 and 1.2 ± 0.4 μM. The apoptosis was assayed by flow cytometry. Ir-1, Ir-2 and Ir-3 reveal weak apoptotic effect, whereas Ir-1-Lipo, Ir-2-Lipo and Ir-3-Lipo induce an apoptotic percentage of 55.6%, 69.3% and 16.7% in A549 cells, respectively. Specially, in the assay of antitumor activity in vivo, the inhibiting percentage of tumor growth induced by Ir-2 is 27.65%, while inhibiting percentage of tumor growth caused by Ir-2-Lipo is 57.45%. Obviously, the liposomes can enhance anticancer activity in vitro and in vivo compared with the complexes. The results show that the iridium(III) complexes encapsulated liposomes induce apoptosis in A549 cells through ROS-mediated lysosome-mitochondria dysfunction pathway and target the microtubules.

Oxidative stress-mediated apoptotic cell death induced by camphor in sod1-deficient Schizosaccharomyces pombe

Camphor is one of the monoterpenes widely used in cosmetics, pharmaceutics and the food industry. In this study, we aimed to assess the oxidative, cytotoxic and apoptotic effects of camphor on the fission yeast (Schizosaccharomyces pombe), which is a promising unicellular model organism in mechanistic toxicology and cell biology. Since Sod1 is the main radical scavenger in the cell, we used sod1 mutants to understand whether camphor-induced ROS accumulation caused higher cytotoxicity and apoptosis. Camphor exposure (0-2000 mg L-1) caused significant cytotoxicity in yeast, particularly in sod1Δ cells. DCFDA (2,7-dichlorodihydrofluorescein diacetate) fluorescence and NBT (p-nitro-blue tetrazolium chloride) reduction increased (at least 2.5-3-fold in sod1Δ cells) in correlation with camphor concentrations (800-1200 mg L-1), showing higher ROS levels and oxidative stress. Moreover, cells, stained with acridine orange/ethidium bromide, showed an apoptotic morphology with nuclear fragmentation and condensation. DAPI (4',6-diamidino-2-phenylindole) staining was used to validate the apoptotic nuclear morphology. Dramatically increased mitochondrial impairment, which was higher in sod1Δ cells than in wild type cells, was shown by rhodamine 123 staining. In conclusion, camphor-induced excessive ROS production, which could not be prevented significantly in sod1 mutants, caused a dramatic increase in mortality rates due to intrinsic apoptosis revealed by mitochondrial impairment and apoptotic nuclear morphology. The potential effects of camphor on apoptotic cell death and the underlying mechanisms were clarified in the unicellular eukaryotic model, S. pombe.

Anticancer and antibacterial activity in vitro evaluation of iridium(III) polypyridyl complexes

Three iridium(III) polypyridyl complexes [Ir(ppy)₂(PYTA)](PF₆) (1) (ppy = 2-phenylpyridine), [Ir(bzq)₂(PYTA)](PF₆) (2) (bzq = benzo[h]quinolone) and [Ir(piq)₂(PYTA)](PF₆) (3) (piq = 1-phenylisoquinoline, PYTA = 2,4-diamino-6-(2'-pyridyl)-1,3,5-triazine) were synthesized and characterized by elemental analysis, IR, ¹H NMR and ¹³C NMR. The cytotoxic activity of the complexes toward cancer SGC-7901, Eca-109, A549, HeLa, HepG2, BEL-7402 and normal LO2 cell lines was investigated by 3-(4,5-Dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide (MTT) method. Complex 3 shows the most effective on inhibiting the above cell growth among these complexes. The complexes locate at the lysosomes and mitochondria. AO/EB, Annex V and PI and comet assays indicate that the complexes can induce apoptosis in SGC-7901 cells. Intracellular ROS and mitochondrial membrane potential were examined under fluorescence microscopy. The results demonstrate that the complexes increase the intracellular ROS levels and induce a decrease in the mitochondrial membrane potential. The complexes can enhance intracellular Ca²⁺ concentration and cause a release of cytochrome c. The autophagy was studied using MDC staining and western blot. Complexes 1-3 can effectively inhibit the cell invasion with a concentration-dependent manner. Additionally, the complexes target tubules and inhibit the polymerization of tubules. The antimicrobial activity of the complexes against S. aureus, E. coli, Salmonella and L. monocytogenes was explored. The mechanism shows that the complexes induce apoptosis in SGC-7901 cells through ROS-mediated lysosomal-mitochondrial, targeting tubules and damage DNA pathways. Three iridium(III) complexes [Ir(N-C)₂(PYTA)](PF₆) (N-C = ppy, 1; bzq, 2; piq, 3) were synthesized and characterized. The anticancer activity of the complexes against SGC-7901 cells was studied by apoptosis, comet assay, autophagy, ROS, mitochondrial membrane potential, intracellular Ca²⁺ levels, release of cytochrome c, tubules and western blot analysis. The antibacterial activity in vitro was also assayed.

Oxidative stress and mitochondrial impairment mediated apoptotic cell death induced by terpinolene in Schizosaccharomyces pombe

Terpinolene is one of the most abundant monoterpenes used as a food supplement or odorant in cosmetics and the pharmaceutical industry. In this study, we aimed to assess apoptotic, oxidative and cytotoxic effects of terpinolene. We used the fission yeast (Schizosaccharomyces pombe) as a promising uni-cellular model organism in molecular toxicology and cell death research, due to its resemblance to mammalian cells at the molecular level. After terpinolene exposure (200-800 mg L-1), the IC50 and LC50 were calculated as 349.17 mg L-1 and 593.87 mg L-1. Cells, stained with acridine orange/ethidium bromide and DAPI, showed apoptotic nuclear morphology, chromatin condensation and fragmentation. 2,7-Dichlorodihydrofluorescein diacetate (DCFDA) fluorescence gradually increased (1.5-2-fold increase) in correlation with increasing concentrations of terpinolene (200-800 mg L-1). Mitochondrial impairment at higher concentrations of terpinolene (400-800 mg L-1) was shown by Rhodamine 123 staining. Real-time PCR experiments showed significant increases (1.5-3-fold) in SOD1 and GPx1 levels (p < 0.05) as well as 2-2.5-fold increases (p < 0.05) in pro-apoptotic factors, Pca1 and Sprad9. The potential effects of terpinolene on programmed cell death and the underlying mechanisms were clarified in unicellular model fungi, Schizosaccharomyces pombe.

Photoinduced anticancer activity studies of iridium(III) complexes targeting mitochondria and tubules

Three new iridium (III) complexes [Ir (ppy)₂ (ipbc)](PF₆) (1), [Ir (bzq)₂ (ipbc)](PF₆) (2) and [Ir (piq)₂ (ipbc)](PF₆) (3) were designed and synthesized. All the complexes were tested for anticancer activity using 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazole)-2,5-diphenyltetraazolium bromide (MTT) method. The complexes show no cytotoxic activity toward cancer BEL-7402, SGC-7901, Eca-109, A549, HeLa and HepG2 cells. However, upon irradiation with white light, the complexes display high cytotoxicity against BEL-7402 cells with an IC₅₀ value of 5.5 ± 0.8, 7.3 ± 1.3 and 11.5 ± 1.6 μM for 1, 2 and 3, respectively. AO/EB staining and comet assay show that the complexes can induce apoptosis in BEL-7402 cells. The complexes can increase intracellular ROS and Ca²⁺ levels and cause a decrease in the mitochondrial membrane potential. Autophagic assays exhibit that the complexes can induce autophagy and regulate the expression of Beclin-1 and LC3 proteins. The cell cycle distribution in BEL-7402 cells was carried out by flow cytometry. The expression of Bcl-2 family proteins was studied by western blot. Additionally, the complexes can release cytochrome c and inhibit the polymerization of α-tubulin. Our study reveals that the complexes inhibit the cell growth in BEL-7402 cells through an ROS-mediated mitochondria dysfunction and targeting tubules pathways. These complexes are a promising new entity for the development of multi-target anticancer drugs.