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Owczarzy A, Kulig K, Piordas K, Piśla P, Sarkowicz P, Rogóż W, Maciążek-Jurczyk M. Solid-phase microextraction - a future technique in pharmacology and coating trends. ANALYTICAL METHODS : ADVANCING METHODS AND APPLICATIONS 2024; 16:3164-3178. [PMID: 38717233 DOI: 10.1039/d4ay00187g] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/24/2024]
Abstract
Traditional sample preparation techniques based on liquid-liquid extraction (LLE) or solid-phase extraction (SPE) often suffer from a major error due to the matrix effects caused by significant co-extraction of matrix components. The implementation of a modern extraction technique such as solid-phase microextraction (SPME) was aimed at reducing analysis time and the use of organic solvents, as well as eliminating pre-analytical and analytical errors. Solid-phase microextraction (SPME) is an innovative technique for extracting low molecular weight compounds (less than 1500 Da) from highly complex matrices, including biological matrices. It has a wide range of applications in various types of analysis including pharmaceutical, clinical, metabolomics and proteomics. SPME has a number of advantages over other extraction techniques. Among the most important are low environmental impact, the ability to sample and preconcentrate analytes in one step, simple automation, and the ability to extract multiple analytes simultaneously. It is expected to become, in the future, another method for cell cycle research. Numerous available literature sources prove that solid-phase microextraction can be a future technique in many scientific fields, including pharmaceutical sciences. This paper provides a literature review of trends in SPME coatings and pharmacological applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aleksandra Owczarzy
- Department of Physical Pharmacy, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences in Sosnowiec, Medical University of Silesia in Katowice, 40-055 Katowice, Poland.
| | - Karolina Kulig
- Department of Physical Pharmacy, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences in Sosnowiec, Medical University of Silesia in Katowice, 40-055 Katowice, Poland.
| | - Katarzyna Piordas
- Student Research Group at the Department of Physical Pharmacy, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences in Sosnowiec, Medical University of Silesia in Katowice, 40-055 Katowice, Poland
| | - Patrycja Piśla
- Student Research Group at the Department of Physical Pharmacy, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences in Sosnowiec, Medical University of Silesia in Katowice, 40-055 Katowice, Poland
| | - Patrycja Sarkowicz
- Student Research Group at the Department of Physical Pharmacy, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences in Sosnowiec, Medical University of Silesia in Katowice, 40-055 Katowice, Poland
| | - Wojciech Rogóż
- Department of Physical Pharmacy, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences in Sosnowiec, Medical University of Silesia in Katowice, 40-055 Katowice, Poland.
| | - Małgorzata Maciążek-Jurczyk
- Department of Physical Pharmacy, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences in Sosnowiec, Medical University of Silesia in Katowice, 40-055 Katowice, Poland.
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Yang J, Zhang X, Geng L, Xia C, Chen X, Yang W, Xu H, Lin Z. Nanogap engineering of 3D nanoraspberries into 2D plasmonic nanoclusters toward improved SERS performance. NANOSCALE 2024; 16:2877-2882. [PMID: 38235598 DOI: 10.1039/d3nr05989h] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/19/2024]
Abstract
3D raspberry-like core/satellite nanostructures were prepared by controlled surface functionalization of silica spheres using crosslinked poly(4-vinylpyridine) (P4VP) chains with known binding affinity for gold nanoparticles (AuNPs). The 3D SiO2-g-P(4VP-co-DVB)/AuNP nanoraspberries can be further transformed into 2D plasmonic nanoclusters by etching the silica core with hydrofluoric acid (HF). After the transformation, the interparticle distance between the AuNPs dramatically reduced from a 10 nm scale to sub 2 nm. Owing to the strong electromagnetic field generated by the plasmonic coupling between AuNPs in very close proximity, the established P(4VP-co-DVB)/AuNP nanoclusters provided strong and undisturbed Raman signals as a SERS substrate. In addition, benefiting from the stabilizing effect of the crosslinked P(4VP-co-DVB) network, the prepared SERS substrate has the advantages of good uniformity, stability and reproducibility, as well as strong SERS enhancement, endowing it with great potential for rapid and efficient SERS detection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jian Yang
- Institute of Advanced Synthesis, School of Chemistry and Molecular Engineering, Nanjing Tech University, Nanjing 211816, China.
| | - Xinxing Zhang
- Institute of Advanced Synthesis, School of Chemistry and Molecular Engineering, Nanjing Tech University, Nanjing 211816, China.
| | - Lin Geng
- Institute of Advanced Synthesis, School of Chemistry and Molecular Engineering, Nanjing Tech University, Nanjing 211816, China.
| | - Chao Xia
- Institute of Advanced Synthesis, School of Chemistry and Molecular Engineering, Nanjing Tech University, Nanjing 211816, China.
| | - Xin Chen
- Institute of Advanced Synthesis, School of Chemistry and Molecular Engineering, Nanjing Tech University, Nanjing 211816, China.
| | - Wenzhong Yang
- Institute of Advanced Synthesis, School of Chemistry and Molecular Engineering, Nanjing Tech University, Nanjing 211816, China.
| | - Hui Xu
- Institute of Advanced Synthesis, School of Chemistry and Molecular Engineering, Nanjing Tech University, Nanjing 211816, China.
| | - Zhiqun Lin
- Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, National University of Singapore, 4 Engineering Drive 4, Singapore, 117585 Singapore.
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Liu Z, Ge D, Zhao C, Shi J, Zeng Z, Fang Z, Liu J, Zhang L. A porous silicon composite with irregular silver nano-dendritic particles: a rapid optical sensor for trace detection of malachite green in freshwater fish. ANALYTICAL METHODS : ADVANCING METHODS AND APPLICATIONS 2024; 16:608-614. [PMID: 38197306 DOI: 10.1039/d3ay02044d] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/11/2024]
Abstract
This study focused on creating a SERS composite particle specifically designed for detecting malachite green. We synthesized silver nano-dendritic structures on p-type porous silicon using an external electric field, separating them from the silicon wafer. Ultrasonic crushing yielded irregular silver nanodendrite-modified porous silicon composite particles. Upon being tested in an aqueous solution of malachite green, these composite particles demonstrated significant surface-enhanced Raman scattering effects. Our findings highlight the exceptional performance of the SERS substrate composed of porous silicon and irregular silver nano-dendritic particles. It exhibited high sensitivity, specificity, consistent signal strength, and reliability in detecting trace amounts of malachite green in water. Under ideal conditions, the substrate could detect malachite green at concentrations as low as 10-8 M. Moreover, its swift response to trace amounts of malachite green in fish underscores its potential as an effective Raman detector.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhen Liu
- Institute of Intelligent Flexible Mechatronics, Jiangsu University, Xue Fu Street, Zhen Jiang, Jiangsu Province, China.
| | - Daohan Ge
- Institute of Intelligent Flexible Mechatronics, Jiangsu University, Xue Fu Street, Zhen Jiang, Jiangsu Province, China.
| | - Chengxiang Zhao
- Institute of Intelligent Flexible Mechatronics, Jiangsu University, Xue Fu Street, Zhen Jiang, Jiangsu Province, China.
| | - Jiakang Shi
- Institute of Intelligent Flexible Mechatronics, Jiangsu University, Xue Fu Street, Zhen Jiang, Jiangsu Province, China.
| | - Zhou Zeng
- Institute of Intelligent Flexible Mechatronics, Jiangsu University, Xue Fu Street, Zhen Jiang, Jiangsu Province, China.
| | - Zhiwei Fang
- Institute of Intelligent Flexible Mechatronics, Jiangsu University, Xue Fu Street, Zhen Jiang, Jiangsu Province, China.
| | - Jingcheng Liu
- Key Laboratory of Synthetic and Biological Colloids, Ministry of Education, Jiangnan University, Li Hu Street, Wu Xi, Jiangsu Province, China
| | - Liqiang Zhang
- Institute of Intelligent Flexible Mechatronics, Jiangsu University, Xue Fu Street, Zhen Jiang, Jiangsu Province, China.
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Villa NS, Picarelli C, Iacoe F, Zanchi CG, Ossi PM, Lucotti A, Tommasini M. Investigating Perampanel Antiepileptic Drug by DFT Calculations and SERS with Custom Spinning Cell. Molecules 2023; 28:5968. [PMID: 37630222 PMCID: PMC10459216 DOI: 10.3390/molecules28165968] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/01/2023] [Revised: 07/21/2023] [Accepted: 08/02/2023] [Indexed: 08/27/2023] Open
Abstract
SERS, a clinical practice where medical doctors can monitor the drug concentration in biological fluids, has been proposed as a viable approach to therapeutic drug monitoring (TDM) of the antiepileptic drug Perampanel. The adoption of an acidic environment during the SERS experiments was found to be effective in enhancing the spectroscopic signal. In this work, we combine SERS experiments, conducted with a custom spinning cell in controlled acidic conditions, with DFT calculations aimed at investigating the possible protonated forms of Perampanel. The DFT-simulated Raman spectra of protonated Perampanel accounts for most of the observed SERS signals, thus explaining the effective role of protonation of the analyte. Our results suggest protonation as a viable approach to fostering SERS of alkaline drugs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicolò Simone Villa
- Department of Chemistry, Materials, and Chemical Engineering “G. Natta”, Politecnico di Milano, Piazza Leonardo da Vinci 32, 20133 Milano, Italy; (N.S.V.); (C.P.); (C.G.Z.); (A.L.)
| | - Chiara Picarelli
- Department of Chemistry, Materials, and Chemical Engineering “G. Natta”, Politecnico di Milano, Piazza Leonardo da Vinci 32, 20133 Milano, Italy; (N.S.V.); (C.P.); (C.G.Z.); (A.L.)
| | - Federica Iacoe
- Department of Chemistry, Materials, and Chemical Engineering “G. Natta”, Politecnico di Milano, Piazza Leonardo da Vinci 32, 20133 Milano, Italy; (N.S.V.); (C.P.); (C.G.Z.); (A.L.)
| | - Chiara Giuseppina Zanchi
- Department of Chemistry, Materials, and Chemical Engineering “G. Natta”, Politecnico di Milano, Piazza Leonardo da Vinci 32, 20133 Milano, Italy; (N.S.V.); (C.P.); (C.G.Z.); (A.L.)
| | - Paolo M. Ossi
- Department of Energy, Politecnico di Milano, Piazza Leonardo da Vinci 32, 20133 Milano, Italy;
| | - Andrea Lucotti
- Department of Chemistry, Materials, and Chemical Engineering “G. Natta”, Politecnico di Milano, Piazza Leonardo da Vinci 32, 20133 Milano, Italy; (N.S.V.); (C.P.); (C.G.Z.); (A.L.)
| | - Matteo Tommasini
- Department of Chemistry, Materials, and Chemical Engineering “G. Natta”, Politecnico di Milano, Piazza Leonardo da Vinci 32, 20133 Milano, Italy; (N.S.V.); (C.P.); (C.G.Z.); (A.L.)
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Yan X, Zhao H, Shi X, Yang Z, Ma J. Dual Function of 4-Aminothiophene in Surface-Enhanced Raman Scattering Application as an Internal Standard and Adsorbent for Controlling Au Nanocrystal Morphology. ACS APPLIED MATERIALS & INTERFACES 2023; 15:13427-13438. [PMID: 36857292 DOI: 10.1021/acsami.2c19390] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
The sensitivity and quantitative accuracy of surface-enhanced Raman scattering (SERS) are the main factors that restrict its application. Here, novel Au nanoscale convex polyhedrons (Au NCPs) were designed and fabricated to solve these problems via an embedded standard, including eight pods and six small protrusions. Spherical Au seeds regrew into different sizes of Au NCPs with a face-centered cubic structure. This morphology is due to the dual mechanism of the 4-aminothiophene (4-ATP) molecule that serves as an internal standard and a surface ligand regulator combined with the regulatory role of hexadecyl trimethyl ammonium chloride. The results show that Au NCPs were enclosed by high-index {12 9 1} facets, which greatly improved the local plasma resonance and reduced the lowest SERS detectable concentration of pyrene in standard seawater to 0.5 nM. An effective reference was produced by embedding 4-ATP with a relative standard deviation value less than 2.97% (in the same batch) and 3.92% (between different batches). Our research offers a new strategy for morphological regulation of metal nanocrystals, which is useful for the preparation of highly sensitive SERS substrates and trace analysis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xia Yan
- Optics and Optoelectronics Laboratory, Ocean University of China, Qingdao 266100, P. R. China
- Department of Physics, Lyuliang University, Lyuliang 033000, P. R. China
| | - Hang Zhao
- Optics and Optoelectronics Laboratory, Ocean University of China, Qingdao 266100, P. R. China
| | - Xiaofeng Shi
- Optics and Optoelectronics Laboratory, Ocean University of China, Qingdao 266100, P. R. China
| | - Zhiyuan Yang
- Optics and Optoelectronics Laboratory, Ocean University of China, Qingdao 266100, P. R. China
| | - Jun Ma
- Optics and Optoelectronics Laboratory, Ocean University of China, Qingdao 266100, P. R. China
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Lv H, Guan Q, Wang Y, Zhang X. Mechanical power driven SPME-SERS ultra-fast detection of illegal additives in aquaculture water. RSC Adv 2021; 11:12893-12901. [PMID: 35423820 PMCID: PMC8697362 DOI: 10.1039/d0ra10227j] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/04/2020] [Accepted: 03/26/2021] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
A dual-function (extraction and detection) porous silver fiber with high enhancement effect was constructed based on a convenient electrochemical etching method. The prepared silver fiber not only had high enrichment capacity and good Surface Enhanced Raman Spectroscopy (SERS) performance but also had good laser stability and uniformity. A strategy combining mechanical power and integration of solid phase extraction (SPME) and SERS detection was used. Driven by mechanical power, the analyte malachite green (MG) was enriched on the prepared silver fiber after 40 seconds, which can realize an ultra-fast and sensitive detection with a detection limit of 8.48 × 10-9 M. At the same time, this fiber can be regenerated after being treated with NaBH4. The silver fiber can be used for the detection of MG and CV after being immersed in NaBH4 solution for a few minutes. After 5 cycles of processing, the measurement signals of the silver fiber can reach 70% of the initial signals. The mechanical power driven SPME-SERS (MPD-SPME-SERS) integrated detection method can be used to analyse aquaculture water within 1 minute with a good linear relationship.
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Affiliation(s)
- Handi Lv
- School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Shandong University China
| | - Qi Guan
- School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Shandong University China
| | - Ying Wang
- School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Shandong University China
| | - Xiaoli Zhang
- School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Shandong University China
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Majeed SA. Combining microextraction methods with surface-enhanced Raman spectroscopy towards more selective and sensitive analyte detection by plasmonic metal nanoparticles. Analyst 2020; 145:6744-6752. [DOI: 10.1039/d0an01304h] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
Raman signals of analytes can be enhanced on the surface of noble nanoparticles by generating SERS signals, which can be further enhanced using microextraction (ME) techniques.
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Hahm E, Cha MG, Kang EJ, Pham XH, Lee SH, Kim HM, Kim DE, Lee YS, Jeong DH, Jun BH. Multilayer Ag-Embedded Silica Nanostructure as a Surface-Enhanced Raman Scattering-Based Chemical Sensor with Dual-Function Internal Standards. ACS APPLIED MATERIALS & INTERFACES 2018; 10:40748-40755. [PMID: 30375227 DOI: 10.1021/acsami.8b12640] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
Surface-enhanced Raman scattering (SERS) spectroscopy is attractive in various detection analysis fields. However, the quantitative method using SERS spectroscopy remains as an area to be developed. The key issues in developing quantitative analysis methods by using SERS spectroscopy are the fabrication of reliable SERS-active materials such as nanoparticle-based structures and the acquisition of the SERS signal without any disturbance that may change the SERS signal intensity and frequency. Here, the fabrication of seamless multilayered core-shell nanoparticles with an embedded Raman label compound as an internal standard (MLRLC dots) for quantitative SERS analysis is reported. The embedded Raman label compound in the nanostructure provides a reference value for calibrating the SERS signals. By using the MLRLC dots, it is possible to gain target analyte signals of different concentrations while retaining the Raman signal of the internal standard. The ML4-BBT dots, containing 4-bromobenzenethiol (4-BBT) as an internal standard, are successfully applied in the quantitative analysis of 4-fluorobenzenethiol and thiram, a model pesticide. Additionally, ratiometric analysis was proved practical through normalization of the relative SERS intensity. The ratiometric strategy could be applied to various SERS substrates for quantitative detection of a wide variety of targets.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eunil Hahm
- Department of Bioscience and Biotechnology , Konkuk University , Seoul 05029 , Republic of Korea
| | | | - Eun Ji Kang
- Department of Bioscience and Biotechnology , Konkuk University , Seoul 05029 , Republic of Korea
| | - Xuan-Hung Pham
- Department of Bioscience and Biotechnology , Konkuk University , Seoul 05029 , Republic of Korea
| | - Sang Hun Lee
- Department of Bioengineering , University of California Berkeley , Berkeley , California 94720 , United States
| | - Hyung-Mo Kim
- Department of Bioscience and Biotechnology , Konkuk University , Seoul 05029 , Republic of Korea
| | - Dong-Eun Kim
- Department of Bioscience and Biotechnology , Konkuk University , Seoul 05029 , Republic of Korea
| | | | | | - Bong-Hyun Jun
- Department of Bioscience and Biotechnology , Konkuk University , Seoul 05029 , Republic of Korea
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Shi R, Liu X, Ying Y. Facing Challenges in Real-Life Application of Surface-Enhanced Raman Scattering: Design and Nanofabrication of Surface-Enhanced Raman Scattering Substrates for Rapid Field Test of Food Contaminants. JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY 2018; 66:6525-6543. [PMID: 28920678 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jafc.7b03075] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/09/2023]
Abstract
Surface-enhanced Raman scattering (SERS) is capable of detecting a single molecule with high specificity and has become a promising technique for rapid chemical analysis of agricultural products and foods. With a deeper understanding of the SERS effect and advances in nanofabrication technology, SERS is now on the edge of going out of the laboratory and becoming a sophisticated analytical tool to fulfill various real-world tasks. This review focuses on the challenges that SERS has met in this progress, such as how to obtain a reliable SERS signal, improve the sensitivity and specificity in a complex sample matrix, develop simple and user-friendly practical sensing approach, reduce the running cost, etc. This review highlights the new thoughts on design and nanofabrication of SERS-active substrates for solving these challenges and introduces the recent advances of SERS applications in this area. We hope that our discussion will encourage more researches to address these challenges and eventually help to bring SERS technology out of the laboratory.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ruyi Shi
- College of Biosystems Engineering and Food Science , Zhejiang University , 866 Yuhangtang Road , Hangzhou , Zhejiang 310058 , China
| | - Xiangjiang Liu
- College of Biosystems Engineering and Food Science , Zhejiang University , 866 Yuhangtang Road , Hangzhou , Zhejiang 310058 , China
| | - Yibin Ying
- College of Biosystems Engineering and Food Science , Zhejiang University , 866 Yuhangtang Road , Hangzhou , Zhejiang 310058 , China
- Zhejiang A&F University , 88 Huanchengdong Road , Hangzhou , Zhejiang 311300 , China
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Determination of trichloroethylene by using self-referenced SERS and gold-core/silver-shell nanoparticles. Mikrochim Acta 2018; 185:330. [DOI: 10.1007/s00604-018-2870-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/19/2018] [Accepted: 06/08/2018] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
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Determination of Pyrethroids in Tea Brew by GC-MS Combined with SPME with Multiwalled Carbon Nanotube Coated Fiber. Int J Anal Chem 2018; 2018:8426598. [PMID: 29707002 PMCID: PMC5863342 DOI: 10.1155/2018/8426598] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/18/2017] [Revised: 01/12/2018] [Accepted: 02/08/2018] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
A new method has been developed to simultaneously determine 7 pyrethroid residues in tea brew using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) combined with solid phase microextraction (SPME) with multiwalled carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs) coated fiber. The MWCNTs coated fiber of SPME was homemade by using stainless steel wire as coating carrier and polyacrylonitrile (PAN) solution as adhesive glue. Under the optimized conditions, a good linearity was shown for bifenthrin, fenpropathrin, permethrin, and cyfluthrin in 1–50 ng mL−1 and for cypermethrin, fenvalerate, and deltamethrin in 5–50 ng mL−1. The correlation coefficients were in the range of 0.9948–0.9999. The average recoveries of 7 pyrethroids were 94.2%–107.3% and the relative standard deviations (RSDs) were less than 15%. The detection limit of the method ranged from 0.12 to 1.65 ng mL−1. The tea brew samples made from some commercial tea samples were analyzed. Among them, bifenthrin, fenpropathrin, and permethrin were found. The results show that the method is rapid and sensitive and requires low organic reagent consumption, which can be well used for the detection of the pyrethroids in tea brew.
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Reyes-Garcés N, Gionfriddo E, Gómez-Ríos GA, Alam MN, Boyacı E, Bojko B, Singh V, Grandy J, Pawliszyn J. Advances in Solid Phase Microextraction and Perspective on Future Directions. Anal Chem 2017; 90:302-360. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.analchem.7b04502] [Citation(s) in RCA: 402] [Impact Index Per Article: 57.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Md. Nazmul Alam
- Department of Chemistry, University of Waterloo, Ontario, Canada N2L 3G1
| | - Ezel Boyacı
- Department of Chemistry, Middle East Technical University, Ankara 06800, Turkey
| | - Barbara Bojko
- Department of Pharmacodynamics and Molecular Pharmacology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Collegium Medicum in Bydgoszcz, Nicolaus Copernicus University in Toruń, 85-067 Bydgoszcz, Poland
| | - Varoon Singh
- Department of Chemistry, University of Waterloo, Ontario, Canada N2L 3G1
| | - Jonathan Grandy
- Department of Chemistry, University of Waterloo, Ontario, Canada N2L 3G1
| | - Janusz Pawliszyn
- Department of Chemistry, University of Waterloo, Ontario, Canada N2L 3G1
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