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Ruiz-Agudo C, Cölfen H. Exploring the Potential of Nonclassical Crystallization Pathways to Advance Cementitious Materials. Chem Rev 2024; 124:7538-7618. [PMID: 38874016 PMCID: PMC11212030 DOI: 10.1021/acs.chemrev.3c00259] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/21/2023] [Revised: 05/31/2024] [Accepted: 06/03/2024] [Indexed: 06/15/2024]
Abstract
Understanding the crystallization of cement-binding phases, from basic units to macroscopic structures, can enhance cement performance, reduce clinker use, and lower CO2 emissions in the construction sector. This review examines the crystallization pathways of C-S-H (the main phase in PC cement) and other alternative binding phases, particularly as cement formulations evolve toward increasing SCMs and alternative binders as clinker replacements. We adopt a nonclassical crystallization perspective, which recognizes the existence of critical intermediate steps between ions in solution and the final crystalline phases, such as solute ion associates, dense liquid phases, amorphous intermediates, and nanoparticles. These multistep pathways uncover innovative strategies for controlling the crystallization of binding phases through additive use, potentially leading to highly optimized cement matrices. An outstanding example of additive-controlled crystallization in cementitious materials is the synthetically produced mesocrystalline C-S-H, renowned for its remarkable flexural strength. This highly ordered microstructure, which intercalates soft matter between inorganic and brittle C-S-H, was obtained by controlling the assembly of individual C-S-H subunits. While large-scale production of cementitious materials by a bottom-up self-assembly method is not yet feasible, the fundamental insights into the crystallization mechanism of cement binding phases presented here provide a foundation for developing advanced cement-based materials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cristina Ruiz-Agudo
- Physical Chemistry, Department of Chemistry, University of Konstanz, Universitätsstr. 10, 78457 Konstanz, Germany
| | - Helmut Cölfen
- Physical Chemistry, Department of Chemistry, University of Konstanz, Universitätsstr. 10, 78457 Konstanz, Germany
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2
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Cheng L, Zhou Y, Zhang H, Xiao S, Li W, Chen W. The influence of the molecular chain length of PVA on the toughening mechanism of calcium silicate hydrates. Phys Chem Chem Phys 2024; 26:9399-9412. [PMID: 38444367 DOI: 10.1039/d3cp05000a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/07/2024]
Abstract
In recent years, polymers have been demonstrated to effectively toughen cementitious materials. However, the mechanism of interaction between the polymers and C-S-H at the nanoscale remains unclear, and the quantitative impact of the polymer chain length on toughening effectiveness is lacking in research. This study employs molecular dynamics techniques to examine the impact of the polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) chain length on the tensile performance and toughening mechanism of C-S-H. The toughening effect in both the X and Z directions exhibits an initial enhancement followed by a decline with increasing chain length. The optimal degrees of polymerization are determined to be 8 and 12 in the X and Z directions, respectively, resulting in an improvement of fracture energy by 146.7% and 29.5%, respectively. During the stretching process along the X and Z axes, the chain length of PVA molecules significantly influences the variation in the number of Ca⋯O bonds in the system, leading to different stress responses. Additionally, PVA molecules form C-O-Si bonds with the silicate layers of C-S-H, bridging the adjacent layers in a left-right or up-down manner. The toughening effect of PVA on C-S-H depends on the behavior of PVA molecules with different chain lengths, and there exists an optimal range of chain length for PVA, enabling it to enhance structural uniformity and adjust its own conformation to absorb strain energy. When the length of PVA molecular chains is too short, it can easily cause stress concentration in the system and its connection with silicates is not significant. Conversely, when the length of PVA molecular chains is too long, the large molecular structure restricts its extension in the defects of C-S-H, and as the stretching progresses, PVA molecules break and form numerous small segments, thereby losing the advantage of the chain length. This study provides a theoretical basis for the ability of polymers to toughen cementitious materials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luqing Cheng
- School of Materials Science and Engineering, Southeast University, Nanjing, Jiangsu 211189, China.
- State Key Laboratory of High Performance Civil Engineering Materials, Jiangsu Research Institute of Building Science Co., Nanjing 211103, China.
| | - Yang Zhou
- School of Materials Science and Engineering, Southeast University, Nanjing, Jiangsu 211189, China.
- State Key Laboratory of High Performance Civil Engineering Materials, Jiangsu Research Institute of Building Science Co., Nanjing 211103, China.
| | - Hao Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of High Performance Civil Engineering Materials, Jiangsu Research Institute of Building Science Co., Nanjing 211103, China.
| | - Shuai Xiao
- School of Materials Science and Engineering, Southeast University, Nanjing, Jiangsu 211189, China.
- State Key Laboratory of High Performance Civil Engineering Materials, Jiangsu Research Institute of Building Science Co., Nanjing 211103, China.
| | - Weihuan Li
- School of Materials Science and Engineering, Southeast University, Nanjing, Jiangsu 211189, China.
- State Key Laboratory of High Performance Civil Engineering Materials, Jiangsu Research Institute of Building Science Co., Nanjing 211103, China.
| | - Wentao Chen
- School of Materials Science and Engineering, Southeast University, Nanjing, Jiangsu 211189, China.
- State Key Laboratory of High Performance Civil Engineering Materials, Jiangsu Research Institute of Building Science Co., Nanjing 211103, China.
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3
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Zhou Y, Xiao S, Cheng L, Chen Y, Tang J, She W. A toughening mechanism of the strain rate-optimal chain length on polymer-modified calcium silicate hydrates (CSH). Phys Chem Chem Phys 2023; 25:24097-24109. [PMID: 37655461 DOI: 10.1039/d3cp01743e] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 09/02/2023]
Abstract
Polymers are known to effectively improve the toughness of inorganic matrices; however, the mechanism at the molecular level is still unclear. In this study, we used molecular dynamics simulations to unravel the effects and mechanisms of different molecular chain lengths of polyacrylic acid (PAA) on toughening calcium silicate hydrate (CSH), which is the basic building block of cement-based materials. Our simulation results indicate that an optimal molecular chain length of polymers contributes to the largest toughening effect on the matrix, leading to up to 60.98% increase in fracture energy. During the uniaxial tensile tests along the x-axis and z-axis direction, the configuration evolution of the PAA molecule determines the toughening effect. As the polymer unfolds and its size matches the defects of CSH, the stress distribution of the system becomes more homogeneous, which favors an increase in toughness. Furthermore, based on our simulation results and a mathematical model, we propose a theory of "strain rate/optimal chain length". This theory suggests that the optimal toughening effect can be achieved when the molecular chain length of the organic component is 1.3-1.5 times the largest defect size of the inorganic matrix. This work provides molecular-scale insights into the toughening mechanisms of an organic/inorganic system and may have practical implications for improving the toughness of cement-based materials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yang Zhou
- School of Materials Science and Engineering, Southeast University, Nanjing, Jiangsu 211189, China.
- State Key Laboratory of High Performance Civil Engineering Materials, Jiangsu Research Institute of Building Science Co, Nanjing 211103, China
| | - Shuai Xiao
- School of Materials Science and Engineering, Southeast University, Nanjing, Jiangsu 211189, China.
- State Key Laboratory of High Performance Civil Engineering Materials, Jiangsu Research Institute of Building Science Co, Nanjing 211103, China
| | - Luqing Cheng
- School of Materials Science and Engineering, Southeast University, Nanjing, Jiangsu 211189, China.
- State Key Laboratory of High Performance Civil Engineering Materials, Jiangsu Research Institute of Building Science Co, Nanjing 211103, China
| | - Yuan Chen
- School of Materials Science and Engineering, Southeast University, Nanjing, Jiangsu 211189, China.
- State Key Laboratory of High Performance Civil Engineering Materials, Jiangsu Research Institute of Building Science Co, Nanjing 211103, China
| | - JinHui Tang
- School of Materials Science and Engineering, Southeast University, Nanjing, Jiangsu 211189, China.
- State Key Laboratory of High Performance Civil Engineering Materials, Jiangsu Research Institute of Building Science Co, Nanjing 211103, China
| | - Wei She
- School of Materials Science and Engineering, Southeast University, Nanjing, Jiangsu 211189, China.
- State Key Laboratory of High Performance Civil Engineering Materials, Jiangsu Research Institute of Building Science Co, Nanjing 211103, China
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Hou G, Ren R, Shang W, Weng Y, Liu J. Molecular Dynamics Simulation of Polymer Nanocomposites with Supramolecular Network Constructed via Functionalized Polymer End-Grafted Nanoparticles. Polymers (Basel) 2023; 15:3259. [PMID: 37571153 PMCID: PMC10422474 DOI: 10.3390/polym15153259] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/03/2023] [Revised: 07/21/2023] [Accepted: 07/27/2023] [Indexed: 08/13/2023] Open
Abstract
Since the proposal of self-healing materials, numerous researchers have focused on exploring their potential applications in flexible sensors, bionic robots, satellites, etc. However, there have been few studies on the relationship between the morphology of the dynamic crosslink network and the comprehensive properties of self-healing polymer nanocomposites (PNCs). In this study, we designed a series of modified nanoparticles with different sphericity (η) to establish a supramolecular network, which provide the self-healing ability to PNCs. We analyzed the relationship between the morphology of the supramolecular network and the mechanical performance and self-healing behavior. We observed that as η increased, the distribution of the supramolecular network became more uniform in most cases. Examination of the segment dynamics of polymer chains showed that the completeness of the supramolecular network significantly hindered the mobility of polymer matrix chains. The mechanical performance and self-healing behavior of the PNCs showed that the supramolecular network mainly contributed to the mechanical performance, while the self-healing efficiency was dominated by the variation of η. We observed that appropriate grafting density is the proper way to effectively enhance the mechanical and self-healing performance of PNCs. This study provides a unique guideline for designing and fabricating self-healing PNCs with modified Nanoparticles (NPs).
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Affiliation(s)
- Guanyi Hou
- College of Chemistry and Materials Engineering, Beijing Technology and Business University, Beijing 100048, China; (R.R.); (W.S.)
| | - Runhan Ren
- College of Chemistry and Materials Engineering, Beijing Technology and Business University, Beijing 100048, China; (R.R.); (W.S.)
| | - Wei Shang
- College of Chemistry and Materials Engineering, Beijing Technology and Business University, Beijing 100048, China; (R.R.); (W.S.)
| | - Yunxuan Weng
- College of Chemistry and Materials Engineering, Beijing Technology and Business University, Beijing 100048, China; (R.R.); (W.S.)
| | - Jun Liu
- Center of Advanced Elastomer Materials, Beijing University of Chemical Technology, Beijing 100029, China;
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Chen Y, Zheng Y, Zhou Y, Zhang W, Li W, She W, Liu J, Miao C. Multi-layered cement-hydrogel composite with high toughness, low thermal conductivity, and self-healing capability. Nat Commun 2023; 14:3438. [PMID: 37301895 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-023-39235-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/09/2022] [Accepted: 06/02/2023] [Indexed: 06/12/2023] Open
Abstract
The inherent quasi-brittleness of cement-based materials, due to the disorder of their hydration products and pore structures, present significant challenges for directional matrix toughening. In this work, a rigid layered skeleton of cement slurry was prepared using a simplified ice-template method, and subsequently flexible polyvinyl alcohol hydrogel was introduced into the unidirectional pores between neighboring cement platelets, resulting in the formation of a multi-layered cement-based composite. A toughness improvement of over 175 times is achieved by the implantation of such hard-soft alternatively layered microstructure. The toughening mechanism is the stretching of hydrogels at the nano-scale and deflections of micro-cracks at the interfaces, which avoid stress concentration and dissipate huge energy. Furthermore, this cement-hydrogel composite also exhibits a low thermal conductivity (around 1/10 of normal cement) and density, high specific strength and self-healing properties, which can be used in thermal insulation, seismic high-rise buildings and long-span bridges.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuan Chen
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Construction Materials, School of Materials Science and Engineering, Southeast University, Nanjing, 211189, China
| | - Yangzezhi Zheng
- School of Transportation, Southeast University, Nanjing, 211189, China
| | - Yang Zhou
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Construction Materials, School of Materials Science and Engineering, Southeast University, Nanjing, 211189, China.
| | - Wei Zhang
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Advanced Metallic Materials, School of Materials Science and Engineering, Southeast University, Nanjing, 211189, China.
| | - Weihuan Li
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Construction Materials, School of Materials Science and Engineering, Southeast University, Nanjing, 211189, China
| | - Wei She
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Construction Materials, School of Materials Science and Engineering, Southeast University, Nanjing, 211189, China
| | - Jiaping Liu
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Construction Materials, School of Materials Science and Engineering, Southeast University, Nanjing, 211189, China
| | - Changwen Miao
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Construction Materials, School of Materials Science and Engineering, Southeast University, Nanjing, 211189, China
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Madeja B, Wilke P, Schreiner E, Konradi R, Scheck J, Bizzozero J, Nicoleau L, Wagner E, Rückel M, Cölfen H, Kellermeier M. Phage Display Screening as a Rational Approach to Design Additives for Selective Crystallization Control in Construction Systems. ADVANCED MATERIALS (DEERFIELD BEACH, FLA.) 2023; 35:e2210015. [PMID: 36861429 DOI: 10.1002/adma.202210015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/29/2022] [Revised: 02/22/2023] [Indexed: 05/19/2023]
Abstract
The design of additives showing strong and selective interactions with certain target surfaces is key to crystallization control in applied reactive multicomponent systems. While suitable chemical motifs can be found through semi-empirical trial-and-error procedures, bioinspired selection techniques offer a more rationally driven approach and explore a much larger space of possible combinations in a single assay. Here, phage display screening is used to characterize the surfaces of crystalline gypsum, a mineral of broad relevance for construction applications. Based on next-generation sequencing of phages enriched during the screening process, a triplet of amino acids, DYH, is identified as the main driver for adsorption on the mineral substrate. Furthermore, oligopeptides containing this motif prove to exert their influence in a strictly selective manner during the hydration of cement, where the sulfate reaction (initial setting) is strongly retarded while the silicate reaction (final hardening) remains unaffected. In the final step, these desired additive characteristics are successfully translated from the level of peptides to that of scalable synthetic copolymers. The approach described in this work demonstrates how modern biotechnological methods can be leveraged for the systematic development of efficient crystallization additives for materials science.
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Affiliation(s)
- Benjamin Madeja
- Physical Chemistry, University of Konstanz, Universitätsstr. 10, D-78464, Konstanz, Germany
| | - Patrick Wilke
- Material Science, BASF SE, Carl-Bosch-Str. 38, D-67056, Ludwigshafen, Germany
| | - Eduard Schreiner
- Molecular Modeling, BASF SE, Carl-Bosch-Str. 38, D-67056, Ludwigshafen, Germany
| | - Rupert Konradi
- Biointerfaces and Delivery Systems, BASF SE, Carl-Bosch-Str. 38, D-67056, Ludwigshafen, Germany
| | - Johanna Scheck
- Mineralogy, BASF Construction Additives GmbH, Dr.-Albert-Frank-Str. 32, D-83308, Trostberg, Germany
| | - Julien Bizzozero
- Mineralogy, BASF Construction Additives GmbH, Dr.-Albert-Frank-Str. 32, D-83308, Trostberg, Germany
| | - Luc Nicoleau
- Mineralogy, BASF Construction Additives GmbH, Dr.-Albert-Frank-Str. 32, D-83308, Trostberg, Germany
| | - Elisabeth Wagner
- Material Science, BASF SE, Carl-Bosch-Str. 38, D-67056, Ludwigshafen, Germany
| | - Markus Rückel
- Material Science, BASF SE, Carl-Bosch-Str. 38, D-67056, Ludwigshafen, Germany
| | - Helmut Cölfen
- Physical Chemistry, University of Konstanz, Universitätsstr. 10, D-78464, Konstanz, Germany
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Luo Q, Huang J. Mechanisms and Critical Technologies of Transport Inhibitor Agent (TIA) throughout C-S-H Nano-Channels. MATERIALS 2022; 15:ma15020515. [PMID: 35057230 PMCID: PMC8780887 DOI: 10.3390/ma15020515] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/06/2021] [Revised: 12/30/2021] [Accepted: 01/04/2022] [Indexed: 12/04/2022]
Abstract
The critical issue of the durability of marine concrete lies in the continuous penetration and rapid enrichment of corrosive ions. Here a new ion transfer inhibitor, as TIA, with calcium silicate hydrate (C-S-H) interfacial affinity and hydrophobicity is proposed through insights from molecular dynamics into the percolation behavior of the ion solution in C-S-H nano-channels and combined with molecular design concepts. One side of the TIA can be adsorbed on the surface of the cement matrix and can form clusters of corrosive ions to block the gel pores so as to resist the ion solution percolation process. Its other side is structured as a hydrophobic carbon chain, similar to a door hinge, which can stick to the matrix surface smoothly before the erosion solution is percolated. It can then change into a perpendicular chain shape to reduce the percolation channel’s diameter and thereby inhibit the percolation when ions meet the inhibitor. Therefore, once the erosion solution contacts TIA, it can quickly chelate with calcium ions and erosion ions at the interface to form clusters and compact pores. In addition, the water absorption, chloride migration coefficient, and chloride content of concrete samples decreased significantly after adding TIA, proving that TIA can effectively enhance the durability of cement-based materials. The structure–activity relationship of ion transfer that is proposed can provide new ideas for solving the critical problems of durability of cement-based materials and polymer molecular design.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qi Luo
- School of Materials Science and Engineering, Southeast University, Nanjing 211189, China;
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory for Construction Materials, Southeast University, Nanjing 211189, China
| | - Jiale Huang
- School of Materials Science and Engineering, Southeast University, Nanjing 211189, China;
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory for Construction Materials, Southeast University, Nanjing 211189, China
- State Key Laboratory of High Performance Civil Engineering Materials, Jiangsu Research Institute of Building Science Co., Nanjing 211103, China
- Correspondence:
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Sadki K, Saaoud M, Drissi LB. Thermal strain engineering of mechanical properties in Si-based hybrid sheets via molecular dynamics simulations. J Mol Model 2021; 27:290. [PMID: 34545425 DOI: 10.1007/s00894-021-04854-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2020] [Accepted: 07/28/2021] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
The mechanical properties of pristine and defective Si-based hybrid sheets are studied using molecular dynamics calculations for a temperature ranging from 100 to 800 K, in conjunction with a variable strain rate. When increasing temperature, the melting phase of the hybrids occurs from the solid to the liquid phase, while the increase in the strain rate enhances their elastic parameters. The absence of plastic stage reveals that the fracture pattern is brittle in these 2D materials. Under the uniaxial loading, the systems stretch, resulting in the failure of the crystalline skeletons that lose their rigidity with anisotropic behavior observed only for SiC. In defective hybrids, the point defects reduce the values of fracture strength and strain without affecting the brittle behavior of the sheets. The results impart that coupling high temperature to SiC material offers new possibilities for MEMS devices, whereas SiGe is a promising candidate for microelectronic devices.
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Affiliation(s)
- K Sadki
- LPHE, Modeling & Simulations, Faculty of Science, Mohammed V University in Rabat, Rabat, Morocco.,CPM, Centre of Physics and Mathematics, Faculty of Science, Mohammed V University in Rabat, Rabat, Morocco
| | - M Saaoud
- LPHE, Modeling & Simulations, Faculty of Science, Mohammed V University in Rabat, Rabat, Morocco
| | - L B Drissi
- LPHE, Modeling & Simulations, Faculty of Science, Mohammed V University in Rabat, Rabat, Morocco. .,CPM, Centre of Physics and Mathematics, Faculty of Science, Mohammed V University in Rabat, Rabat, Morocco. .,College of Physical and Chemical Sciences, Hassan II Academy of Sciences and Technology, Km 4, Avenue Mohammed VI, Rabat, Morocco.
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Zeng X, Zhu H, Lan X, Liu H, Long G, Ma C. Effects of asphalt emulsion on calcium silicate hydrate gel: Morphology and porosity. ASIA-PAC J CHEM ENG 2020. [DOI: 10.1002/apj.2589] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Xiaohui Zeng
- School of Civil Engineering Central South University Changsha China
| | - Huasheng Zhu
- School of Civil Engineering Central South University Changsha China
| | - Xuli Lan
- School of Civil Engineering Central South University Changsha China
| | - Haichuan Liu
- School of Civil Engineering Central South University Changsha China
| | - Guangcheng Long
- School of Civil Engineering Central South University Changsha China
| | - Cong Ma
- School of Civil Engineering Central South University Changsha China
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Yu J, Gao S, Hou D, Wang P, Sun G. Water Transport Mechanisms of Poly(acrylic acid), Poly(vinyl alcohol), and Poly(ethylene glycol) in C-S-H Nanochannels: A Molecular Dynamics Study. J Phys Chem B 2020; 124:6095-6104. [PMID: 32551670 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jpcb.0c03017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
The transport properties of water molecules in nanochannels are critical to the durability of porous materials. In this article, molecular dynamics simulations are used to study the effects of poly(acrylic acid) (PAA), poly(vinyl alcohol) (PAA), and poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG) on the durability of modified cement-based materials. By establishing ideal composite nanopores, the absorption of water molecules in the channel is simulated. The results show that PEG has the best water-blocking effect under the same simulated conditions, followed by PVA, and PAA is the most unfavorable. This difference in the water-blocking effect can be explained by two factors. On the one hand, hydrophobic alkane groups in these polymers can inhibit water molecule transport. A large number of -COOH and -OH functional groups in PAA and PVA will form a complex H-bond network with the water molecules in the nanopore, dragging the water molecules forward, thereby speeding up the water molecule transmission to a certain extent. However, PEG, which mainly contains low-polar oxygen (C-O-C), has weak hydrogen bonding with water molecules, so the water-blocking effect is more obvious. On the other hand, the van der Waals interaction and the electrostatic interaction mainly derived from Op-Caw-Os can ensure the absorption of the polymer on the C-S-H surface during the transport process. The -COOH in PAA ensures its strongest absorption. But PVA and PEG will morphologically agglomerate during the water absorption, occupying pores and hindering the transport of water molecules.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jiao Yu
- Department of Civil Engineering, Qingdao University of Technology, Qingdao 266000, China
| | - Song Gao
- Department of Civil Engineering, Qingdao University of Technology, Qingdao 266000, China
| | - Dongshuai Hou
- Department of Civil Engineering, Qingdao University of Technology, Qingdao 266000, China
| | - Pan Wang
- Department of Civil Engineering, Qingdao University of Technology, Qingdao 266000, China
| | - Guoxing Sun
- Joint Key Laboratory of the Ministry of Education, Institute of Applied Physics and Materials Engineering, University of Macau, Avenida da Universidade, Taipa, Macau SAR 999078, China
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