Recent Advances in Metal-Catalyzed Approaches for the Synthesis of Quinazoline Derivatives

Quinazolines are an important class of heterocyclic compounds that have proven their significance, especially in the field of organic synthesis and medicinal chemistry because of their wide range of biological and pharmacological properties. Thus, numerous synthetic methods have been developed for the synthesis of quinazolines and their derivatives. This review article briefly outlines the new synthetic methods for compounds containing the quinazoline scaffold employing transition metal-catalyzed reactions.

Expanding the Scope of Alkynes in C-H Activation: Weak Chelation-Assisted Cobalt-Catalyzed Synthesis of Indole C(4)-Acrylophenone via C-O Bond Cleavage of Propargylic Ethers

Herein, we report the facile synthesis of indole C(4)-acrylophenone using a C-H bond activation strategy. For this conversion, an unsymmetrical alkyne (phenylethynyl ether) in the presence of cobalt(III)-catalyst works efficiently. In this process, alkyne gets oxidized in the presence of in situ generated water, which is the key step for this method, for which trifluoroethanol is the water source. The pivaloyl directing group chelates effectively to generate the cobaltacycle intermediate, which was detected through high-resolution mass spectrometry (HRMS). Also, the formation of bis(2,2,2-trifluoroethyl) ether has been confirmed and quantified using 19F NMR. In addition, the applicability of obtained indole C(4)-acrylophenone product has been demonstrated by performing the Nazarov cyclization and conjugate addition to the α,β-unsaturated ketone moiety.

Rh(III)-Catalyzed N-Amino-Directed C-H Coupling with 3-Methyleneoxetan-2-ones for 1,2-Dihydroquinoline-3-carboxylic Acid Synthesis

Dynamic polarity analysis is proposed herein as a general tool for investigating static polarity and transient polarity and revealing expanded reactivity patterns. Through this analysis formalism, polarity matching has been established for Rh(III)-catalyzed N-amino-directed C-H coupling with 3-methyleneoxetan-2-ones, providing efficient access to 1,2-dihydroquinoline-3-carboxylic acids. The identified reaction, by virtue of the internal oxidative mechanism, showcases mild reaction conditions (room temperature), a short reaction time (2 h), and a generally high product yield.

2-Hydroxypyridine-based Ligands as Promoter in Ruthenium(II) Catalyzed C-H Bond Activation/Arylation Reactions

A class of 2-hydroxypyridine based ligands are explored to achieve enhanced catalytic activity for ortho-C-H bond activation/arylation reaction over [(η6 -p-cymene)RuCl2 ]2 catalyst in water. Extensive studies using a series of substituted 2-hydroxypyridine based ligands (L1-L6) inferred that 5-trifluoromethyl-2-hydroxypyridine (L6) exhibited favorable effects to enhance the catalytic activity of Ru(II) catalyst for ortho C-H bond arylation of 2-phenylpyridine by 8 folds compared to those performed without ligands. The (η6 -p-cymene)Ru - L6 system also exhibited enhanced catalytic activity for ortho C-H bond arylation of 2-phenylpyridine using a variety of aryl halides. NMR and mass investigations inferred the presence of several ligand coordinated Ru(II) species, suggesting the involvement of these species in C-H bond activation reaction. Further in concurrence with the experimental findings, the density functional theory (DFT) calculations also evidenced the prominent role of 2-hydroxypyridine based ligands in Ru(II) catalyzed C-H bond arylation of 2-phenylpyridine with lower energy barrier for the C-H activation step.

Cooperation towards nobility: equipping first-row transition metals with an aluminium sword

The exploration for noble metals substitutes in catalysis has become a highly active area of research, driven by the pursuit of sustainable chemical processes. Although the utilization of base metals holds great potential as an alternative, their successful implementation in predictable catalytic processes necessitates the development of appropriate ligands. Such ligands must be capable of controlling their intricate redox chemistry and promote two-electron events, thus mimicking well-established organometallic processes in noble metal catalysis. While numerous approaches for infusing nobility to base metals have been explored, metal-ligand cooperation has garnered significant attention in recent years. Within this context, aluminium-based ligands offer interesting features to fine-tune the activity of metal centres, but their application in base metal catalysis remains largely unexplored. This perspective seeks to highlight the most recent breakthroughs in the reactivity of heterobimetallic aluminium-base-metal complexes, while also showcasing their potential to develop novel and predictable catalytic transformations. By turning the spotlight on such heterobimetallic species, we aim to inspire chemists to explore aluminium-base-metal species and expand the range of their applications as catalysts.

Pd(II)-catalyzed coupling of C-H bonds of carboxamides with iodoazobenzenes toward modified azobenzenes

In this paper, we report a synthetic protocol for the construction of biaryl motif-based or π-extended azobenzene and alkylated azobenzene derivatives via the Pd(II)-catalyzed bidentate directing group (DG)-aided C-H activation and functionalization strategy. In the past, the synthesis of biaryl motif-based azobenzenes was accomplished through the traditional cross-coupling reaction involving organometallic reagents and aryl halides or equivalent coupling partners. We have shown the direct coupling of C-H bonds of aromatic/aliphatic carboxamides (possessing a DG) with iodoazobenzenes as the coupling partners through the Pd(II)-catalyzed bidentate DG-aided, site-selective C-H functionalization method. Azobenzene-containing compounds are a versatile class of photo-responsive molecules that have found applications across branches of chemical, biological and materials sciences and are prevalent in medicinally relevant molecules. Accordingly, the synthesis of new and functionalized azobenzene-based scaffolds has been an attractive topic of research. Although the classical methods are efficient, they need pre-functionalized starting materials. This protocol involving the Pd(II)-catalyzed, directing group-aided site-selective C-H arylation of aromatic and aliphatic carboxamides using iodoazobenzene as the coupling partner affording azobenzene-based carboxamides is an additional route and also a contribution towards enriching the library of modified azobenzenes. We have also shown the photoswitching properties of representative compounds synthesized via the Pd(II)-catalyzed directing group-aided site-selective C-H functionalization method.

Ruthenium-Catalyzed Hydroxyl-Directed peri-Selective C-H Activation and Annulation of 1-Naphthols with CF3-Imidoyl Sulfoxonium Ylides for the Synthesis of 2-(Trifluoromethyl)-2,3-dihydrobenzo[de]chromen-2-amines

A ruthenium-catalyzed peri-selective C-H activation and annulation of 1-naphthols with CF₃-substituted imidoyl sulfoxonium ylides that uses hydroxyl as a weakly coordinating directing group is disclosed. The strategy provides a facile and practical route to diverse trifluoromethyl-containing 2,3-dihydrobenzo[de]chromen-2-amines with high efficiency. Notable advantages of this protocol include readily available materials, excellent regioselectivity, good functional group compatibility, and scalability.

Cp*Co(III)-Catalyzed Selective C8-Olefination and Oxyarylation of Quinoline N-Oxides with Terminal Alkynes

Herein we report Cp*Co(III)-catalyzed site-selective (C8)-H olefination and oxyarylation of quinoline N-oxides with terminal alkynes. The selectivity for C8-olefination and oxyarylation is sterically and electronically controlled. In the case of quinoline N-oxides (unsubstituted at the C2 position), only the olefination product was obtained irrespective of the nature of the alkynes. In contrast, oxyarylation was observed exclusively when 2-substituted quinoline N-oxides were reacted with 9-ethynylphenanthrene. However, alkynes with electron-withdrawing groups provided only olefination products with 2-substituted quinoline N-oxides. The developed strategy allowed a facile functionalization of quinoline N-oxides bearing natural molecules and an estrone-derived terminal alkyne to deliver the corresponding olefinated and oxyarylated products. To understand the reaction mechanism, control experiments, deuterium-labeling experiments, and kinetic isotope effect (KIE) studies were performed.

Cobalt-catalyzed tandem one-pot synthesis of polysubstituted imidazo[1,5-a]pyridines and imidazo[1,5-a]isoquinolines

An efficient cobalt-catalyzed tandem one-pot method has been developed for the synthesis of polysubstituted imidazo[1,5-a]-N-heteroaromatics. The method involves Knoevenagel condensation followed by cobalt-catalyzed direct alkenylation to give the desired polysubstituted imidazo[1,5-a]pyridines and imidazo[1,5-a]isoquinolines in a one-pot manner. This method exhibits a broad substrate scope, provides moderate to good (39-74%) yields and is amenable to scale-up to the gram scale.

Transition metal catalysed direct sulfanylation of unreactive C-H bonds: an overview of the last two decades

Transition metal catalysed direct sulfanylations of unreactive C-H bonds have become a unique and straightforward synthetic strategy in late-stage C-S bond formation of relevant complex molecules. Such transformations have represented...

Highly-selective synthesis of functionalized spirobenzofuranones and diketones

A convenient and atom-economical rhodium(iii)-catalyzed highly-selective hydroacylation for the synthesis of spirobenzofuranones and diketones has been successfully developed.

Recent Advances in the High-Valent Cobalt-Catalyzed C-H Functionalization of N-Heterocycles

Direct functionalization of heterocycles using C-H activation widely relies on the precious metal complexes. In past decade, the use of earth abundant and inexpensive transition metal to functionalize heterocycles has become an attractive alternate strategy. This concept is also interesting due to the unique reactivity pattern of these inexpensive metals. In this context we and other research groups have utilized the high-valent cobalt complexes as an inexpensive and readily available catalyst for the functionalization of heterocycles. In this review, we intend to brief recent progress made in the area of high-valent cobalt complexes catalyzed C-H functionalization of N-containing heterocycles.

Transition metal catalysed direct construction of 2-pyridone scaffolds through C-H bond functionalizations

Substituted 2-pyridone is one of the most frequent scaffolds among nitrogen-containing bioactive natural products, pharmaceuticals and organic materials. Besides the classical syntheses to construct this class of molecules, retrosynthetically more straightforward approaches based on transition metal catalysed C-H bond functionalizations have been explored recently. In this review, we have summarized the recent progress in the direct transition metal catalysed construction of substituted 2-pyridone scaffolds via site-selective C-H bond functionalizations.

Magnetically recoverable nickel-palladium alloy nanocatalysts for direct C-H arylation reactions

Novel magnetically recoverable nanocatalyst comprising nickel-palladium (NiPd) alloy nanoparticles (NPs) supported on reduced graphene oxide (rGO) modified with cobalt ferrite (CoFe₂O₄) NPs was fabricated for the direct C-H arylation of imidazopyridine, imidazole, indolizine and furan with aryl halides. To prepare the presented catalyst, rGO nanosheets were first modified with as-synthesized CoFe₂O₄ NPs and then the obtained CoFe₂O₄-rGO nanocomposites served as a support material for the synthesis of bimetallic NiPd alloy NPs at various compositions. The obtained CoFe₂O₄-rGO/NiPd nanocatalysts were characterized by many advanced analytical techniques including TEM, STEM-EDS, XRD, XPS, and ICP-MS. Next, to optimize the reaction conditions, CoFe₂O₄-rGO/NiPd nanocatalysts with different alloy compositions and their monometallic counterparts (CoFe₂O₄-rGO/Ni and CoFe₂O₄-rGO/Pd) were initially tested in the direct C-H arylation of imidazopyridine with bromobenzene. Among all tested nanocatalysts under the optimum reaction conditions, CoFe₂O₄-rGO/Ni₂₀Pd₈₀ showed the best catalytic activity in terms of the isolated product yields. The C-H arylation reactions were studied over a broad substrate scope (35 examples from 36 substrates) and gave the related biaryl products in good to excellent yields. Besides a broad substrate scope, the late-stage C-H arylation of zolimidine, a gastroprotective drug, was realized under the optimized reaction conditions. Moreover, the CoFe₂O₄-rGO/Ni₂₀Pd₈₀ nanocatalysts were recovered from the reaction medium using a simple magnet and reused in the C-H arylation reactions up to five consecutive runs without a significant drop in the product yield. This study shows that magnetically recoverable Pd nanoalloys are promising heterogeneous catalysts to be used in sustainable C-H functionalization reactions.

Cobalt and Iron Stabilized Ketyl, Ketiminyl and Aldiminyl Radical Anions

Carbonyl and iminyl based radical anions are reactive intermediates in a variety of transformations in organic synthesis. Herein, the isolation of ketyl, and more importantly unprecedented ketiminyl and aldiminyl radical anions coordinated to cobalt and iron complexes is presented. Insights into the electronic structure of these unusual metal bound radical anions is provided by X‐Ray diffraction analysis, NMR, IR, UV/Vis and Mössbauer spectroscopy, solid and solution state magnetometry, as well as a by a detailed computational analysis. The metal bound radical anions are very reactive and facilitate the activation of intra‐ and intermolecular C−H bonds.

Co(III)-catalysed regioselective linear C(8)-H olefination of isoquinolone with terminal aromatic and aliphatic alkynes

A regioselective C8 linear olefination of isoquinoline-1H-2-one with terminal (aromatic and aliphatic) alkynes is reported under Co(III) catalysis. This is an exclusive report on the C8 functionalization of isoquinolone using non-noble transition metal complexes. Experimental and computational mechanistic studies have also been performed to depict the reaction pathway.

Cobalt(III)-Catalyzed Regioselective C6 Olefination of 2-Pyridones Using Alkynes: Olefination/Directing Group Migration and Olefination

Co(III)-catalyzed highly regio- and stereoselective direct C6 olefination of 2-pyridones with alkynes has been developed with the assistance of chelation. Upon variation of the reaction conditions, 2-pyridones react well with diaryl alkynes via a C6 olefination/directing group migration pathway to give the tetrasubstituted 6-vinyl-2-pyridones, but the C6-H olefination with terminal alkynes works effectively to afford only the C6-olefinated 2-pyridones. A judicious choice of a solvent and an additive is crucial for catalysis. The protocols feature 100% atom economy, excellent site selectivity, high stereoselectivity, an ample substrate scope, and good compatibility of functional groups. Synthetic applications are demonstrated, and experimental studies and density functional theory calculations are conducted to gain mechanistic insight into the two transformations.

Traceless Directing Groups in Sustainable Metal-Catalyzed C–H Activation

Sustainable transformations towards the production of valuable chemicals constantly attract interest, both in terms of academic and applied research. C–H activation has long been scrutinized in this regard, given that it offers a straightforward pathway to prepare compounds of great significance. In this context, directing groups (DG) have paved the way for chemical transformations that had not been achievable using traditional reactions. Few steps, high yields, selectivity and activation of inert substrates are some of the invaluable assets of directed catalysis. Additionally, the employment of traceless directing groups (TDG) greatly improves and simplifies this strategy, enabling the realization of multi-step reactions in one-pot, cascade procedures. Cheap, abundant, readily available transition metal salts and complexes can catalyze a plethora of reactions employing TDGs, usually under low catalyst loadings—rarely under stoichiometric amounts, leading in greater atom economy and milder conditions with increased yields and step-economy. This review article summarizes all the work done on TDG-assisted catalysis with manganese, iron, cobalt, nickel, or copper catalysts, and discusses the structure-activity relationships observed, by presenting the catalytic pathways and range of transformations reported thus far.

Cobalt-Catalyzed C-H Activation/Annulation of Benzamides with Fluorine-Containing Alkynes: A Route to 3- and 4-Fluoroalkylated Isoquinolinones

The C-H activation/annulation reaction of various benzamides with fluoroalkylated alkynes in the presence of a Co(acac)₂·2H₂O catalyst proceeded very smoothly to give the corresponding 3- and 4-fluoroalkylated isoquinolinones in excellent yields with approximately 70% regioselectivities. These regioisomers could be successfully separated and obtained in pure form. Major or minor regioisomers were determined as 4- or 3-fluoroalkylated isoquinolinones, respectively, based on X-ray crystallographic analyses.

Recent advances and perspectives in manganese-catalyzed C–H activation

Manganese-catalyzed C–H activation has become an emerging area in organic chemistry. These efficient and eco-friendly manganese catalysed reactions provides new opportunities in the field of synthetic organic chemistry.

Directing group strategies in catalytic sp2 C–H cyanations: scope, mechanism and limitations

Directing group strategy in transition metal catalyzed sp² C–H bond cyanation has contributed to the direct conversion of hydrocarbons to cyano-containing compounds. Recent developments in transition metal-mediated sp² C–H bond cyanation using this strategy are reviewed.

Cobalt-catalyzed, directed arylation of C–H bonds in N-aryl pyrazoles

Directed arylation of ortho C–H bonds in N-aryl pyrazoles using a cobalt catalyst is reported. Excellent tolerance of functional groups was observed.

Cobalt(ii)-catalyzed hydroarylation of 1,3-diynes and internal alkynes with picolinamides promoted by alcohol

The Co(ii)-catalyzed selective C-H alkenylation of picolinamides with 1,3-diynes has been developed. This protocol can be applied to a variety of 1,3-diynes. In addition, both symmetrical and unsymmetrical internal alkynes were well tolerated, affording the corresponding alkenyl arenes. Moreover, control experiments indicated that C-H bond cleavage may be involved in the rate-determining step. Furthermore, a deuterium incorporation product was achieved when deuterated alcohol was employed as the solvent, which suggested that alcohol was essential for the final protonolysis.

Cobalt-catalyzed carbonylation of the C-H bond

Direct carbonylation of the C-H bond is a great tool for installing a carbonyl group in a wide variety of substrates. This review summarizes the C-H bond carbonylation methodologies using the cobalt-catalyzed C-H bond functionalization approach. Despite the fact that cobalt-catalyzed carbonylation methodologies have been known since Murahashi's report in 1955, this area is still underdeveloped, particularly carbonylation of the C(sp3)-H bond.

Recent advances in oxidative allylic C-H functionalization via group IX-metal catalysis

Allylic substitution, pioneered by the work of Tsuji and Trost, has been an invaluable tool in the synthesis of complex molecules for decades. An attractive alternative to allylic substitution is the direct functionalization of allylic C-H bonds of unactivated alkenes, thereby avoiding the need for prefunctionalization. Significant early advances in allylic C-H functionalization were made using palladium catalysis. However, Pd-catalyzed reactions are generally limited to the functionalization of terminal olefins with stabilized nucleophiles. Insights from Li, Cossy, and Tanaka demonstrated the utility of RhCp^x catalysts for allylic functionalization. Since these initial reports, a number of key intermolecular Co-, Rh-, and Ir-catalyzed allylic C-H functionalization reactions have been reported, offering significant complementarity to the Pd-catalyzed reactions. Herein, we report a summary of recent advances in intermolecular allylic C-H functionalization via group IX-metal π-allyl complexes. Mechanism-driven development of new catalysts is highlighted, and the potential for future developments is discussed.

Synthesis of 1,2-dihydro-1,3,5-triazine derivatives via Cu(II)-catalyzed C(sp3)-H activation of N,N-dimethylethanolamine with amidines

1,2-Dihydro-1,3,5-triazines and symmetrical 1,3,5-triazines were obtained in up to 81% yields from amidines and N,N-dimethylethanolamine catalyzed by CuCl2. The reaction involves three C-N bond formations during the oxidative annulation process and the mechanism was proposed. This efficient synthesis of 1,2-dihydro-1,3,5-triazines was developed for the first time.

Enantioselective Cobalt-Catalyzed Intermolecular Hydroacylation of 1,6-Enynes

We report a cobalt-catalyzed hydroacylation of 1,6-enynes with exogenous aldehydes in a domino sequence to construct enantioenriched ketones. The products were obtained in good yields with excellent regio-, diastereo-, and enantioselectivity. Furthermore, the chiral products served as valuable precursors to access complex spirocyclic scaffolds with three contiguous stereocenters. The asymmetric hydroacylation process exhibited no C-H crossover and no KIE, thus indicating that the C-H bond cleavage was not involved in the turnover-limiting step.

Cobalt-Catalyzed Enantioselective Hydroarylation of 1,6-Enynes

An asymmetric hydroarylative cyclization of enynes involving a C-H bond cleavage is reported. The cobalt-catalyzed cascade generates three new bonds in an atom-economical fashion. The products were obtained in excellent yields and excellent enantioselectivities as single diastereo- and regioisomers. Preliminary mechanistic studies indicate that the reaction shows no intermolecular C-H crossover. This work highlights the potential of cobalt catalysis in C-H bond functionalization and enantioselective domino reactivity.

Cobalt-Catalyzed, Directed C-H Functionalization/Annulation of Phenylglycinol Derivatives with Alkynes

A new method for cobalt-catalyzed C(sp²)-H functionalization of phenylglycinol derivatives with terminal and internal alkynes directed by picolinamide auxiliary has been developed. This method offers an efficient and highly regioselective route for the synthesis of 1-hydroxymethyltetrahydroisoquinolines. The reaction employs commercially available Co(II) catalyst in the presence of Mn(III) cooxidant and oxygen as a terminal oxidant and proceeds with full preservation of original stereochemistry.