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Davis B, Lee K, Wang X, Wang Y. Deoxyribonucleic Acid-Based Polyvalent Ligand-Receptor Binding for Engineering the Cell Surface with Nanoparticles. Biomacromolecules 2023. [PMID: 37289935 DOI: 10.1021/acs.biomac.3c00264] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Tethering nanoparticles (NPs) onto the cell surface is critical to cellular hitchhiking applications, such as targeted NP delivery and enhanced cell therapy. While numerous methods have been developed to achieve NP attachment onto the cell membrane, they often face limitations such as the use of complicated cell surface modifications or low-efficiency NP attachment. The purpose of this work was to explore a DNA-based synthetic ligand-receptor pair for NP attachment to the surface of live cells. Polyvalent ligand mimics were used to functionalize NPs, while the cell membrane was functionalized with DNA-based cell receptor mimics. Base pair-directed polyvalent hybridization allowed the NPs to bind to the cells quickly and efficiently. Notably, the process of attaching NPs to cells did not require sophisticated chemical conjugation on the cell membrane or involve any cytotoxic cationic polymers. Therefore, DNA-based polyvalent ligand-receptor binding is promising to various applications ranging from cell surface engineering to NP delivery.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brandon Davis
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania 16802, United States
| | - Kyungsene Lee
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania 16802, United States
| | - Xuelin Wang
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania 16802, United States
| | - Yong Wang
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania 16802, United States
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2
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Intranasal Lipid Nanoparticles Containing Bioactive Compounds Obtained from Marine Sources to Manage Neurodegenerative Diseases. Pharmaceuticals (Basel) 2023. [DOI: 10.3390/ph16020311] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/18/2023] Open
Abstract
Marine sources contain several bioactive compounds with high therapeutic potential, such as remarkable antioxidant activity that can reduce oxidative stress related to the pathogenesis of neurodegenerative diseases. Indeed, there has been a growing interest in these natural sources, especially those resulting from the processing of marine organisms (i.e., marine bio-waste), to obtain natural antioxidants as an alternative to synthetic antioxidants in a sustainable approach to promote circularity by recovering and creating value from these bio-wastes. However, despite their expected potential to prevent, delay, or treat neurodegenerative diseases, antioxidant compounds may have difficulty reaching the brain due to the need to cross the blood–brain barrier (BBB). In this regard, alternative delivery systems administered by different routes have been proposed, including intranasal administration of lipid nanoparticles, such as solid lipid nanoparticles (SLN) and nanostructured lipid carriers (NLC), which have shown promising results. Intranasal administration shows several advantages, including the fact that molecules do not need to cross the BBB to reach the central nervous system (CNS), as they can be transported directly from the nasal cavity to the brain (i.e., nose-to-brain transport). The benefits of using SLN and NLC for intranasal delivery of natural bioactive compounds for the treatment of neurodegenerative diseases have shown relevant outcomes through in vitro and in vivo studies. Noteworthy, for bioactive compounds obtained from marine bio-waste, few studies have been reported, showing the open potential of this research area. This review updates the state of the art of using SLN and NLC to transport bioactive compounds from different sources, in particular, those obtained from marine bio-waste, and their potential application in the treatment of neurodegenerative diseases.
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3
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Ruijter N, Soeteman-Hernández LG, Carrière M, Boyles M, McLean P, Catalán J, Katsumiti A, Cabellos J, Delpivo C, Sánchez Jiménez A, Candalija A, Rodríguez-Llopis I, Vázquez-Campos S, Cassee FR, Braakhuis H. The State of the Art and Challenges of In Vitro Methods for Human Hazard Assessment of Nanomaterials in the Context of Safe-by-Design. NANOMATERIALS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2023; 13:472. [PMID: 36770432 PMCID: PMC9920318 DOI: 10.3390/nano13030472] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/23/2022] [Revised: 01/16/2023] [Accepted: 01/18/2023] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
The Safe-by-Design (SbD) concept aims to facilitate the development of safer materials/products, safer production, and safer use and end-of-life by performing timely SbD interventions to reduce hazard, exposure, or both. Early hazard screening is a crucial first step in this process. In this review, for the first time, commonly used in vitro assays are evaluated for their suitability for SbD hazard testing of nanomaterials (NMs). The goal of SbD hazard testing is identifying hazard warnings in the early stages of innovation. For this purpose, assays should be simple, cost-effective, predictive, robust, and compatible. For several toxicological endpoints, there are indications that commonly used in vitro assays are able to predict hazard warnings. In addition to the evaluation of assays, this review provides insights into the effects of the choice of cell type, exposure and dispersion protocol, and the (in)accurate determination of dose delivered to cells on predictivity. Furthermore, compatibility of assays with challenging advanced materials and NMs released from nano-enabled products (NEPs) during the lifecycle is assessed, as these aspects are crucial for SbD hazard testing. To conclude, hazard screening of NMs is complex and joint efforts between innovators, scientists, and regulators are needed to further improve SbD hazard testing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nienke Ruijter
- National Institute for Public Health & the Environment (RIVM), 3721 MA Bilthoven, The Netherlands
| | | | - Marie Carrière
- Univ. Grenoble-Alpes, CEA, CNRS, SyMMES-CIBEST, 17 rue des Martyrs, 38000 Grenoble, France
| | - Matthew Boyles
- Institute of Occupational Medicine (IOM), Edinburgh EH14 4AP, UK
| | - Polly McLean
- Institute of Occupational Medicine (IOM), Edinburgh EH14 4AP, UK
| | - Julia Catalán
- Finnish Institute of Occupational Health, 00250 Helsinki, Finland
- Department of Anatomy, Embryology and Genetics, University of Zaragoza, 50013 Zaragoza, Spain
| | - Alberto Katsumiti
- GAIKER Technology Centre, Basque Research and Technology Alliance (BRTA), 48170 Zamudio, Spain
| | | | | | | | | | - Isabel Rodríguez-Llopis
- GAIKER Technology Centre, Basque Research and Technology Alliance (BRTA), 48170 Zamudio, Spain
| | | | - Flemming R. Cassee
- National Institute for Public Health & the Environment (RIVM), 3721 MA Bilthoven, The Netherlands
- Institute for Risk Assessment Sciences (IRAS), Utrecht University, 3584 CS Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Hedwig Braakhuis
- National Institute for Public Health & the Environment (RIVM), 3721 MA Bilthoven, The Netherlands
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4
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Abostait A, Tyrrell J, Abdelkarim M, Shojaei S, Tse WH, El-Sherbiny IM, Keijzer R, Labouta HI. Placental Nanoparticle Uptake-On-a-Chip: The Impact of Trophoblast Syncytialization and Shear Stress. Mol Pharm 2022; 19:3757-3769. [PMID: 36053057 DOI: 10.1021/acs.molpharmaceut.2c00216] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
The placenta is a dynamic and complex organ that plays an essential role in the health and development of the fetus. Placental disorders can affect the health of both the mother and the fetus. There is currently an unmet clinical need to develop nanoparticle-based therapies to target and treat placental disorders. However, little is known about the interaction of nanoparticles (NPs) with the human placenta under biomimetic conditions. Specifically, the impact of shear stress exerted on the trophoblasts (placental epithelial cells) by the maternal blood flow, the gradual fusion of the trophoblasts along the gestation period (syncytialization), and the impact of microvilli formation on the cell uptake of NPs is not known. To this end, we designed dynamic placenta-on-a-chip models using BeWo cells to recapitulate the micro-physiological environment, and we induced different degrees of syncytialization via chemical induction with forskolin. We characterized the degree of syncytialization quantitatively by measuring beta human chorionic gonadotropin (β-hCG) secretion, as well as qualitatively by immunostaining the tight junction protein, ZO-1, and counter nuclear staining. We also characterized microvilli formation under static and dynamic conditions via F-actin staining. We used these models to measure the cell uptake of chondroitin sulfate a binding protein (CSA) conjugated and control liposomes using confocal microscopy, followed by image analysis. Interestingly, exposure of the cells to a dynamic flow of media intrinsically induced syncytialization and microvilli formation compared to static controls. Under dynamic conditions, BeWo cells produced more β-hCG in conditions that increased the cell exposure time to forskolin (p < 0.005). Our cell uptake results clearly show a combined effect of the exerted shear stress and forskolin treatment on the cell uptake of liposomes as uptake increased in forskolin exposed conditions (p < 0.05). Overall, the difference in the extent of cell uptake of liposomes among the different conditions clearly displays a need for the development of dynamic models of the placenta that consider the changes in the placental cell phenotype along the gestation period, including syncytialization, microvilli formation, and the expression of different transport and uptake receptors. Knowledge generated from this work will inform future research aiming at developing drug delivery systems targeting the placenta.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amr Abostait
- College of Pharmacy, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg R3E 0T5, Canada.,Children's Hospital Research Institute of Manitoba, Winnipeg R3E 3P4, Canada
| | - Jack Tyrrell
- College of Pharmacy, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg R3E 0T5, Canada
| | - Mahmoud Abdelkarim
- College of Pharmacy, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg R3E 0T5, Canada.,Biomedical Engineering, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg R3T 5V6, Canada
| | - Shahla Shojaei
- College of Pharmacy, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg R3E 0T5, Canada
| | - Wai Hei Tse
- Children's Hospital Research Institute of Manitoba, Winnipeg R3E 3P4, Canada.,Depts of Surgery, Division of Pediatric Surgery, Pediatrics & Child Health and Physiology & Pathophysiology, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg R3A 1R9, Canada
| | - Ibrahim M El-Sherbiny
- Nanomedicine Research Labs, Center for Materials Science, Zewail City of Science and Technology, Giza 12578, Egypt
| | - Richard Keijzer
- Children's Hospital Research Institute of Manitoba, Winnipeg R3E 3P4, Canada.,Depts of Surgery, Division of Pediatric Surgery, Pediatrics & Child Health and Physiology & Pathophysiology, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg R3A 1R9, Canada
| | - Hagar I Labouta
- College of Pharmacy, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg R3E 0T5, Canada.,Children's Hospital Research Institute of Manitoba, Winnipeg R3E 3P4, Canada.,Biomedical Engineering, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg R3T 5V6, Canada.,Faculty of Pharmacy, Alexandria University, Alexandria 21521, Egypt
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5
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Rapid Sonochemically-Assisted Synthesis of Highly Stable Gold Nanoparticles as Computed Tomography Contrast Agents. APPLIED SCIENCES-BASEL 2020. [DOI: 10.3390/app10207020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
One of the most widely used modalities of clinical imaging is computed tomography (CT). Recent reports of new contrast agents toward CT imaging have been numerous. The production of gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) as contrast agents for CT is primarily a topic of intense interest. AuNPs have beneficial features for this application, including excellent X-ray attenuation, flexible sizes and shapes, tailorable surface chemistry, excellent biocompatibility and high levels of contrast generating matter. AuNPs with a size of about 18.5 nm and semi-spherical shape were synthesized using a sonochemical method. The attenuation rate of X-rays as measured in Hounsfield units per unit concentration (HU/mg) was measured. Ultrasound treatment for a duration of five min has been shown to produce highly stable AuNPs in different media (AuNPs in water and phosphate-buffered saline (PBS) was −42.1 mV and −39.5 mV, respectively). The CT value (HU = 395) of the AuNPs increased linearly with an increase in the AuNP dosage. The results confirm the use of ultrasonic treatment for the production of metal nanostructures, particularly highly stable non-toxic AuNPs, with good morphology and high-quality crystal structure using an easy and fast method. Synthesized AuNPs have the potential to be used as a CT contrast agent in medical imaging applications.
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Sánchez-Arribas N, Martínez-Negro M, Villar EM, Pérez L, Osío Barcina J, Aicart E, Taboada P, Guerrero-Martínez A, Junquera E. Protein Expression Knockdown in Cancer Cells Induced by a Gemini Cationic Lipid Nanovector with Histidine-Based Polar Heads. Pharmaceutics 2020; 12:E791. [PMID: 32825658 PMCID: PMC7558209 DOI: 10.3390/pharmaceutics12090791] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/24/2020] [Revised: 08/13/2020] [Accepted: 08/19/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
A histidine-based gemini cationic lipid, which had already demonstrated its efficiency as a plasmid DNA (pDNA) nanocarrier, has been used in this work to transfect a small interfering RNA (siRNA) into cancer cells. In combination with the helper lipid monoolein glycerol (MOG), the cationic lipid was used as an antiGFP-siRNA nanovector in a multidisciplinary study. Initially, a biophysical characterization by zeta potential (ζ) and agarose gel electrophoresis experiments was performed to determine the lipid effective charge and confirm siRNA compaction. The lipoplexes formed were arranged in Lα lamellar lyotropic liquid crystal phases with a cluster-type morphology, as cryo-transmission electron microscopy (cryo-TEM) and small-angle X-ray scattering (SAXS) studies revealed. Additionally, in vitro experiments confirmed the high gene knockdown efficiency of the lipid-based nanovehicle as detected by flow cytometry (FC) and epifluorescence microscopy, even better than that of Lipofectamine2000*, the transfecting reagent commonly used as a positive control. Cytotoxicity assays indicated that the nanovector is non-toxic to cells. Finally, using nano-liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (nanoLC-MS/MS), apolipoprotein A-I and A-II followed by serum albumin were identified as the proteins with higher affinity for the surface of the lipoplexes. This fact could be beyond the remarkable silencing activity of the histidine-based lipid nanocarrier herein presented.
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Affiliation(s)
- Natalia Sánchez-Arribas
- Departamento de Química Física, Facultad de Ciencias Químicas, Universidad Complutense de Madrid, 28040 Madrid, Spain; (N.S.-A.); (M.M.-N.); (E.A.); (A.G.-M.)
| | - María Martínez-Negro
- Departamento de Química Física, Facultad de Ciencias Químicas, Universidad Complutense de Madrid, 28040 Madrid, Spain; (N.S.-A.); (M.M.-N.); (E.A.); (A.G.-M.)
| | - Eva M. Villar
- Departamento de Física de Partículas, Facultad de Físicas e Instituto de Investigaciones Sanitarias (IDIS), Universidad de Santiago de Compostela, Campus Vida, E-15782 Santiago de Compostela, Spain; (E.M.V.); (P.T.)
| | - Lourdes Pérez
- Departamento de Tensioactivos y Nanobiotecnología, IQAC-CSIC, 08034 Barcelona, Spain;
| | - José Osío Barcina
- Departamento de Química Orgánica, Facultad de Ciencias Químicas, Universidad Complutense de Madrid, 28040 Madrid, Spain;
| | - Emilio Aicart
- Departamento de Química Física, Facultad de Ciencias Químicas, Universidad Complutense de Madrid, 28040 Madrid, Spain; (N.S.-A.); (M.M.-N.); (E.A.); (A.G.-M.)
| | - Pablo Taboada
- Departamento de Física de Partículas, Facultad de Físicas e Instituto de Investigaciones Sanitarias (IDIS), Universidad de Santiago de Compostela, Campus Vida, E-15782 Santiago de Compostela, Spain; (E.M.V.); (P.T.)
| | - Andrés Guerrero-Martínez
- Departamento de Química Física, Facultad de Ciencias Químicas, Universidad Complutense de Madrid, 28040 Madrid, Spain; (N.S.-A.); (M.M.-N.); (E.A.); (A.G.-M.)
| | - Elena Junquera
- Departamento de Química Física, Facultad de Ciencias Químicas, Universidad Complutense de Madrid, 28040 Madrid, Spain; (N.S.-A.); (M.M.-N.); (E.A.); (A.G.-M.)
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7
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Andraos C, Yu IJ, Gulumian M. Interference: A Much-Neglected Aspect in High-Throughput Screening of Nanoparticles. Int J Toxicol 2020; 39:397-421. [PMID: 32672081 DOI: 10.1177/1091581820938335] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
Despite several studies addressing nanoparticle (NP) interference with conventional toxicity assay systems, it appears that researchers still rely heavily on these assays, particularly for high-throughput screening (HTS) applications in order to generate "big" data for predictive toxicity approaches. Moreover, researchers often overlook investigating the different types of interference mechanisms as the type is evidently dependent on the type of assay system implemented. The approaches implemented in the literature appear to be not adequate as it often addresses only one type of interference mechanism with the exclusion of others. For example, interference of NPs that have entered cells would require intracellular assessment of their interference with fluorescent dyes, which has so far been neglected. The present study investigated the mechanisms of interference of gold NPs and silver NPs in assay systems implemented in HTS including optical interference as well as adsorption or catalysis. The conventional assays selected cover all optical read-out systems, that is, absorbance (XTT toxicity assay), fluorescence (CytoTox-ONE Homogeneous membrane integrity assay), and luminescence (CellTiter Glo luminescent assay). Furthermore, this study demonstrated NP quenching of fluorescent dyes also used in HTS (2',7'-dichlorofluorescein, propidium iodide, and 5,5',6,6'-tetrachloro-1,1',3,3'-tetraethyl-benzamidazolocarbocyanin iodide). To conclude, NP interference is, as such, not a novel concept, however, ignoring this aspect in HTS may jeopardize attempts in predictive toxicology. It should be mandatory to report the assessment of all mechanisms of interference within HTS, as well as to confirm results with label-free methodologies to ensure reliable big data generation for predictive toxicology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Charlene Andraos
- Toxicology Department, 71899National Institute for Occupational Health, Johannesburg, South Africa
| | - Il Je Yu
- HCTm CO, LTD, Majang-myeon, Icheon, South Korea
| | - Mary Gulumian
- Toxicology Department, 71899National Institute for Occupational Health, Johannesburg, South Africa.,Haematology and Molecular Medicine Department, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa
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8
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Wang C, Makvandi P, Zare EN, Tay FR, Niu L. Advances in Antimicrobial Organic and Inorganic Nanocompounds in Biomedicine. ADVANCED THERAPEUTICS 2020. [DOI: 10.1002/adtp.202000024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Chen‐yu Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Military Stomatology & National Clinical Research Center for Oral Diseases & Shaanxi Key Laboratory of StomatologyDepartment of Prosthodontics, School of StomatologyThe Fourth Military Medical University Xi'an Shaanxi 710000 China
| | - Pooyan Makvandi
- Chemistry Department, Faculty of ScienceShahid Chamran University of Ahvaz Ahvaz 6153753843 Iran
- Institute for Polymers, Composites, and Biomaterials (IPCB), National Research Council (CNR) Naples 80125 Italy
| | | | - Franklin R. Tay
- State Key Laboratory of Military Stomatology & National Clinical Research Center for Oral Diseases & Shaanxi Key Laboratory of StomatologyDepartment of Prosthodontics, School of StomatologyThe Fourth Military Medical University Xi'an Shaanxi 710000 China
- College of Graduate StudiesAugusta University Augusta GA 30912 USA
| | - Li‐na Niu
- State Key Laboratory of Military Stomatology & National Clinical Research Center for Oral Diseases & Shaanxi Key Laboratory of StomatologyDepartment of Prosthodontics, School of StomatologyThe Fourth Military Medical University Xi'an Shaanxi 710000 China
- College of Graduate StudiesAugusta University Augusta GA 30912 USA
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9
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Erimban S, Daschakraborty S. Translocation of a hydroxyl functionalized carbon dot across a lipid bilayer: an all-atom molecular dynamics simulation study. Phys Chem Chem Phys 2020; 22:6335-6350. [DOI: 10.1039/c9cp05999g] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Passive permeation of CD across lipid bilayer is almost impossible. Forced permeation results membrane rupture.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shakkira Erimban
- Department of Chemistry
- Indian Institute of Technology Patna
- Bihar 801106
- India
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10
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Labouta HI, Asgarian N, Rinker K, Cramb DT. Meta-Analysis of Nanoparticle Cytotoxicity via Data-Mining the Literature. ACS NANO 2019; 13:1583-1594. [PMID: 30689359 DOI: 10.1021/acsnano.8b07562] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/14/2023]
Abstract
Developing predictive modeling frameworks of potential cytotoxicity of engineered nanoparticles is critical for environmental and health risk analysis. The complexity and the heterogeneity of available data on potential risks of nanoparticles, in addition to interdependency of relevant influential attributes, makes it challenging to develop a generalization of nanoparticle toxicity behavior. Lack of systematic approaches to investigate these risks further adds uncertainties and variability to the body of literature and limits generalizability of existing studies. Here, we developed a rigorous approach for assembling published evidence on cytotoxicity of several organic and inorganic nanoparticles and unraveled hidden relationships that were not targeted in the original publications. We used a machine learning approach that employs decision trees together with feature selection algorithms ( e.g., Gain ratio) to analyze a set of published nanoparticle cytotoxicity sample data (2896 samples). The specific studies were selected because they specified nanoparticle-, cell-, and screening method-related attributes. The resultant decision-tree classifiers are sufficiently simple, accurate, and with high prediction power and should be widely applicable to a spectrum of nanoparticle cytotoxicity settings. Among several influential attributes, we show that the cytotoxicity of nanoparticles is primarily predicted from the nanoparticle material chemistry, followed by nanoparticle concentration and size, cell type, and cytotoxicity screening indicator. Overall, our study indicates that following rigorous and transparent methodological experimental approaches, in parallel to continuous addition to this data set developed using our approach, will offer higher predictive power and accuracy and uncover hidden relationships. Results obtained in this study help focus future studies to develop nanoparticles that are safe by design.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hagar I Labouta
- Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science , University of Calgary , Calgary , Alberta T2N 1N4 , Canada
- College of Pharmacy, Rady Faculty of Health Sciences , University of Manitoba , Winnipeg , Manitoba R3E 0T5 , Canada
- Biomedical Engineering , University of Calgary , Calgary , Alberta T2N 1N4 , Canada
- Department of Pharmaceutics, Faculty of Pharmacy , Alexandria University , Alexandria , 21521 , Egypt
| | - Nasimeh Asgarian
- Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science , University of Calgary , Calgary , Alberta T2N 1N4 , Canada
| | - Kristina Rinker
- Biomedical Engineering , University of Calgary , Calgary , Alberta T2N 1N4 , Canada
- Department of Chemical and Petroleum Engineering , University of Calgary , Calgary , Alberta T2N 1N4 , Canada
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Cumming School of Medicine , University of Calgary , Calgary , Alberta T2N 1N4 , Canada
| | - David T Cramb
- Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science , University of Calgary , Calgary , Alberta T2N 1N4 , Canada
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Cumming School of Medicine , University of Calgary , Calgary , Alberta T2N 1N4 , Canada
- Department of Chemistry and Biology, Faculty of Science , Ryerson University , Toronto , Ontario M5B 2K3 , Canada
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