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Ayaz S, Üzer A, Dilgin Y, Apak MR. Fabrication of a Novel Optical Glucose Biosensor Using Copper(II) Neocuproine as a Chromogenic Oxidant and Glucose Dehydrogenase-Immobilized Magnetite Nanoparticles. ACS OMEGA 2023; 8:47163-47172. [PMID: 38107897 PMCID: PMC10719923 DOI: 10.1021/acsomega.3c07181] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/19/2023] [Revised: 11/11/2023] [Accepted: 11/20/2023] [Indexed: 12/19/2023]
Abstract
This study describes a novel optical glucose biosensor based on a colorimetric reaction between reduced nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NADH) and a copper(II) neocuproine complex ([Cu(Nc)2]2+) as a chromogenic oxidant. An enzymatic reaction takes place between glucose and glucose dehydrogenase (GDH)-chitosan (CS) immobilized on silanized magnetite nanoparticles (CS@SiO2@Fe3O4) in the presence of coenzyme NAD+. The oxidation of glucose to gluconolactone via the immobilized enzyme is coupled with the reduction of NAD+ to NADH at the same time. After the separation of GDH-immobilized SiO2@Fe3O4 with a magnet, the enzymatically produced NADH chemically reduces the chromogenic oxidant cupric neocuproine to the cuprous chelate. Thus, the glucose biosensor is fabricated based on the measurement of the absorbance of the formed yellow-orange complex ([Cu(Nc)2]+) at 450 nm. The obtained results show that the colorimetric biosensor has a wide linear response range for glucose, between 1.0 and 150.0 μM under optimized conditions. The limit of detection and limit of quantification were found to be 0.31 and 1.02 μM, respectively. The selectivity properties of the fabricated biosensor were tested with various interfering species. This biosensor was applied to various samples, and the obtained results suggest that the fabricated optical biosensor can be successfully used for the selective and sensitive determination of glucose in real samples.
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Affiliation(s)
- Selen Ayaz
- Faculty
of Science, Department of Chemistry, Canakkale
Onsekiz Mart University, Canakkale 17100, Turkey
| | - Ayşem Üzer
- Faculty
of Engineering, Department of Chemistry, İstanbul University-Cerrahpaşa, İstanbul-Avcılar 34320, Turkey
| | - Yusuf Dilgin
- Faculty
of Science, Department of Chemistry, Canakkale
Onsekiz Mart University, Canakkale 17100, Turkey
| | - M. Reşat Apak
- Faculty
of Engineering, Department of Chemistry, İstanbul University-Cerrahpaşa, İstanbul-Avcılar 34320, Turkey
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2
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Mungkalasut P, Nimsamer P, Cheepsunthorn P, Payungporn S, Cheepsunthorn CL. Single-Drop Blood Detection of Common G6PD Mutations in Thailand Based on Allele-Specific Recombinase Polymerase Amplification with CRISPR-Cas12a. ACS OMEGA 2023; 8:44733-44744. [PMID: 38046356 PMCID: PMC10688097 DOI: 10.1021/acsomega.3c05596] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2023] [Revised: 10/13/2023] [Accepted: 11/01/2023] [Indexed: 12/05/2023]
Abstract
Glucose 6-phosphate dehydrogenase (G6PD) deficiency is the most common inherited enzymopathy. Identification of the G6PD deficiency through screening is crucial to preventing adverse effects associated with hemolytic anemia following antimalarial drug exposure. Therefore, a rapid and precise field-based G6PD deficiency diagnosis is required, particularly in rural regions where malaria is prevalent. The phenotypic diagnosis of the G6PD intermediate has also been a challenging issue due to the overlapping of G6PD activity levels between deficient and normal individuals, leading to a misinterpretation. The availability of an accurate point-of-care testing (POCT) for G6PD genotype diagnosis will therefore increase the opportunity for screening heterozygous cases in a low-resource setting. In this study, an allele-specific recombinase polymerase amplification (AS RPA) with clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats-Cas12a (CRISPR-Cas12a) was developed as a POCT for accurate diagnosis of common G6PD mutations in Thailand. The AS primers for the wild type and mutant alleles of G6PD MahidolG487A and G6PD ViangchanG871A were designed and used in RPA reactions. Following application of CRISPR-Cas12a systems containing specific protospacer adjacent motif, the targeted RPA amplicons were visualized with the naked eye. Results demonstrated that the G6PD MahidolG487A and G6PD ViangchanG871A assays reached 93.62 and 98.15% sensitivity, respectively. The specificity was 88.71% in MahidolG487A and 99.02% in G6PD ViangchanG871A. The diagnosis accuracy of the G6PD MahidolG487A and G6PD ViangchanG871A assays was 91.67 and 98.72%, respectively. From DNA extraction to detection, the assay required approximately 52 min. In conclusion, this study demonstrated the high performance of an AS RPA with the CRISPR-Cas12a platform for G6PD MahidolG487A and G6PD ViangchanG871A detection assays and the potential use of G6PD genotyping as POCT.
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Affiliation(s)
- Punchalee Mungkalasut
- Interdisciplinary
Program of Biomedical Sciences, Graduate School, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok 10330, Thailand
- Department
of Biochemistry, Faculty of Medicine, Chulalongkorn
University, Bangkok 10330, Thailand
| | - Pattaraporn Nimsamer
- Center
of Excellence in Systems Microbiology, Faculty of Medicine, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok 10330, Thailand
| | - Poonlarp Cheepsunthorn
- Department
of Anatomy, Faculty of Medicine, Chulalongkorn
University, Bangkok 10330, Thailand
| | - Sunchai Payungporn
- Department
of Biochemistry, Faculty of Medicine, Chulalongkorn
University, Bangkok 10330, Thailand
- Center
of Excellence in Systems Microbiology, Faculty of Medicine, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok 10330, Thailand
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3
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Liu Q, Wei Y, Wang Z, Song DP, Cui J, Qi H. Sustainable DNA Data Storage on Cellulose Paper. SMALL METHODS 2023; 7:e2201610. [PMID: 37263984 DOI: 10.1002/smtd.202201610] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/04/2022] [Revised: 04/04/2023] [Indexed: 06/03/2023]
Abstract
DNA is a promising material for high density and long-term archival data storage. In addition to algorithms for encoding digital information into DNA sequences, the DNA writing (chemical synthesis) and reading (DNA sequencing), the preservation of DNA mixtures with high sequence diversity is another critical issue for sustainable, long-term, and large-scale DNA data storage. Here, this work demonstrates a method for low-cost, convenient and sustainable DNA data storage on cellulose paper. A DNA pool comprising thousands of sequences, in which archival data are encoded, is conveniently stored on a cellulose paper with a calculated density as high as 15 TB per mm3 through electrostatic adsorption. This work demonstrates that these digitally encoded DNA pools can be stable for years on the cellulose paper after drying even when directly exposed to air. Furthermore, the reversible electrostatic adsorption enables repeated loading/retrieval of DNA on/off cellulose paper. Therefore, this sustainable DNA preservation on cellulose paper through the convenient electrostatic adsorption exhibits a great advantage in terms of storage capacity and cost that is crucial for practical systems to achieve large-scale and long-time data storage.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qian Liu
- School of Chemical Engineering and Technology, Tianjin University, Tianjin, 300350, China
- Key Laboratory of Systems Bioengineering (Ministry of Education), Tianjin University, Tianjin, 300350, China
| | - Yanan Wei
- School of Chemical Engineering and Technology, Tianjin University, Tianjin, 300350, China
- Key Laboratory of Systems Bioengineering (Ministry of Education), Tianjin University, Tianjin, 300350, China
| | - Zhaoguan Wang
- School of Chemical Engineering and Technology, Tianjin University, Tianjin, 300350, China
- Key Laboratory of Systems Bioengineering (Ministry of Education), Tianjin University, Tianjin, 300350, China
| | - Dong-Po Song
- Tianjin Key Laboratory of Composite and Functional Materials, School of Materials Science and Engineering, Tianjin University, Tianjin, 300350, China
| | - Jingsong Cui
- School of Cyber Science and Engineering, Wuhan University, Wuhan, 430072, China
| | - Hao Qi
- School of Chemical Engineering and Technology, Tianjin University, Tianjin, 300350, China
- Key Laboratory of Systems Bioengineering (Ministry of Education), Tianjin University, Tianjin, 300350, China
- Zhejiang Shaoxing Research Institute of Tianjin University, Zhejiang, 312369, China
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4
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Lee HA, Lin PY, Solomatina AI, Koshevoy IO, Tunik SP, Lin HW, Pan SW, Ho ML. Glucose Sensing in Human Whole Blood Based on Near-Infrared Phosphors and Outlier Treatment with the Programming Language "R". ACS OMEGA 2022; 7:198-206. [PMID: 35036691 PMCID: PMC8757351 DOI: 10.1021/acsomega.1c04344] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/13/2021] [Accepted: 12/09/2021] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
A near-infrared paper-based analytical device (NIR-PAD) for glucose detection in whole blood was based on iridium(III) metal complexes embedded in a three-dimensional (3D) enzyme gel. These complexes emit NIR luminescence, can avoid interference from the color of blood, and increase the sensitivity of sensing glucose. The glucose reaction behaviors of another two different iridium(III) and platinum(II) complexes were also tested. When the glucose solution was added to the device, the oxidation of glucose by glucose oxidase caused oxygen consumption and increased the intensity of the phosphorescence emission. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first time that data have been treated with the programming language "R", which uses Tukey's test to identify the outliers in the data and calculate a median for establishing a calibration curve, in order to improve the accuracy of NIR-PADs for sensing glucose. Compared with other published devices, NIR-PADs exhibit a wider linear range (1-30 mM, [relative emission intensity] = 0.0250[glucose] + 0.0451, and R 2 = 0.9984), a low detection limit (0.7 mM), a short response time (<2 s), and a small sample volume (2 μL). Finally, blood specimens were obtained from 19 patients enrolled in Taipei Veterans General Hospital under an approved IRB protocol (Taiwan; 2017-12-002CC). The sensors exhibited remarkable characteristics for glucose detection in comparison with other methods, including the clinical method in hospitals as well as those without blood sample pretreatment or a dilution factor. The above results confirm that NIR-PAD sensors can be put to practical use for glucose detection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hsia-An Lee
- Department
of Chemistry, Soochow University, 70 Linhsi Road,
Shihlin, Taipei 111, Taiwan
| | - Peng-Yi Lin
- Department
of Chemistry, Soochow University, 70 Linhsi Road,
Shihlin, Taipei 111, Taiwan
| | - Anastasia I. Solomatina
- Institute
of Chemistry, St. Petersburg State University, Universitetskii pr. 26, St. Petersburg 198504, Russia
| | - Igor O. Koshevoy
- Department
of Chemistry, University of Eastern Finland, Joensuu 80101, Finland
| | - Sergey P. Tunik
- Institute
of Chemistry, St. Petersburg State University, Universitetskii pr. 26, St. Petersburg 198504, Russia
| | - Hui-Wen Lin
- Department
of Mathematics, Soochow University, 70 Linhsi Road,
Shihlin, Taipei 111, Taiwan
| | - Sheng-Wei Pan
- Department
of Chest Medicine, Taipei Veterans General
Hospital, Taipei 11217, Taiwan
- School
of Medicine, National Yang Ming Chiao Tung
University, Taipei 11221, Taiwan
| | - Mei-Lin Ho
- Department
of Chemistry, Soochow University, 70 Linhsi Road,
Shihlin, Taipei 111, Taiwan
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Yan T, Zhang G, Chai H, Qu L, Zhang X. Flexible Biosensors Based on Colorimetry, Fluorescence, and Electrochemistry for Point-of-Care Testing. Front Bioeng Biotechnol 2021; 9:753692. [PMID: 34650963 PMCID: PMC8505690 DOI: 10.3389/fbioe.2021.753692] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/05/2021] [Accepted: 09/13/2021] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
With the outbreak and pandemic of COVID-19, point-of-care testing (POCT) systems have been attracted much attention due to their significant advantages of small batches of samples, user-friendliness, easy-to-use and simple detection. Among them, flexible biosensors show practical significance as their outstanding properties in terms of flexibility, portability, and high efficiency, which provide great convenience for users. To construct highly functional flexible biosensors, abundant kinds of polymers substrates have been modified with sufficient properties to address certain needs. Paper-based biosensors gain considerable attention as well, owing to their foldability, lightweight and adaptability. The other important flexible biosensor employs textiles as substrate materials, which has a promising prospect in the area of intelligent wearable devices. In this feature article, we performed a comprehensive review about the applications of flexible biosensors based on the classification of substrate materials (polymers, paper and textiles), and illustrated the strategies to design effective and artificial sensing platforms, including colorimetry, fluorescence, and electrochemistry. It is demonstrated that flexible biosensors play a prominent role in medical diagnosis, prognosis, and healthcare.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tingyi Yan
- State Key Laboratory of Bio-Fibers and Eco-Textiles, Intelligent Wearable Engineering Research Center of Qingdao, Research Center for Intelligent and Wearable Technology, College of Textiles and Clothing, Qingdao, China
| | - Guangyao Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Bio-Fibers and Eco-Textiles, Intelligent Wearable Engineering Research Center of Qingdao, Research Center for Intelligent and Wearable Technology, College of Textiles and Clothing, Qingdao, China
| | - Huining Chai
- School of Environmental and Municipal Engineering, Qingdao University of Technology, Qingdao, China
| | - Lijun Qu
- State Key Laboratory of Bio-Fibers and Eco-Textiles, Intelligent Wearable Engineering Research Center of Qingdao, Research Center for Intelligent and Wearable Technology, College of Textiles and Clothing, Qingdao, China
| | - Xueji Zhang
- School of Biomedical Engineering, Health Science Center, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen, China
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Zhang H, Xia C, Feng G, Fang J. Hospitals and Laboratories on Paper-Based Sensors: A Mini Review. SENSORS 2021; 21:s21185998. [PMID: 34577205 PMCID: PMC8472957 DOI: 10.3390/s21185998] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/03/2021] [Revised: 09/01/2021] [Accepted: 09/02/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
With characters of low cost, portability, easy disposal, and high accuracy, as well as bulky reduced laboratory equipment, paper-based sensors are getting increasing attention for reliable indoor/outdoor onsite detection with nonexpert operation. They have become powerful analysis tools in trace detection with ultra-low detection limits and extremely high accuracy, resulting in their great popularity in medical detection, environmental inspection, and other applications. Herein, we summarize and generalize the recently reported paper-based sensors based on their application for mechanics, biomolecules, food safety, and environmental inspection. Based on the biological, physical, and chemical analytes-sensitive electrical or optical signals, extensive detections of a large number of factors such as humidity, pressure, nucleic acid, protein, sugar, biomarkers, metal ions, and organic/inorganic chemical substances have been reported via paper-based sensors. Challenges faced by the current paper-based sensors from the fundamental problems and practical applications are subsequently analyzed; thus, the future directions of paper-based sensors are specified for their rapid handheld testing.
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7
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Lee WC, Ng HY, Hou CY, Lee CT, Fu LM. Recent advances in lab-on-paper diagnostic devices using blood samples. LAB ON A CHIP 2021; 21:1433-1453. [PMID: 33881033 DOI: 10.1039/d0lc01304h] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Lab-on-paper, or microfluidic paper-based analytical devices (μPADs), use paper as a substrate material, and are patterned with a system of microchannels, reaction zones and sensing elements to perform analysis and detection. The sample transfer in such devices is performed by capillary action. As a result, external driving forces are not required, and hence the size and cost of the device are significantly reduced. Lab-on-paper devices have thus attracted significant attention for point-of-care medical diagnostic purposes in recent years, particularly in less-developed regions of the world lacking medical resources and infrastructures. This review discusses the major advances in lab-on-paper technology for blood analysis and diagnosis in the past five years. The review focuses particularly on the many clinical applications of lab-on-paper devices, including diabetes diagnosis, acute myocardial infarction (AMI) detection, kidney function diagnosis, liver function diagnosis, cholesterol and triglyceride (TG) analysis, sickle-cell disease (SCD) and phenylketonuria (PKU) analysis, virus analysis, C-reactive protein (CRP) analysis, blood ion analysis, cancer factor analysis, and drug analysis. The review commences by introducing the basic transmission principles, fabrication methods, structural characteristics, detection techniques, and sample pretreatment process of modern lab-on-paper devices. A comprehensive review of the most recent applications of lab-on-paper devices to the diagnosis of common human diseases using blood samples is then presented. The review concludes with a brief summary of the main challenges and opportunities facing the lab-on-paper technology field in the coming years.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wen-Chin Lee
- Division of Nephrology, Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, College of Medicine, Chang Gung University, Kaohsiung, 833, Taiwan.
| | - Hwee-Yeong Ng
- Division of Nephrology, Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, College of Medicine, Chang Gung University, Kaohsiung, 833, Taiwan.
| | - Chih-Yao Hou
- Department of Seafood Science, National Kaohsiung University of Science and Technology, Kaohsiung 811, Taiwan
| | - Chien-Te Lee
- Division of Nephrology, Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, College of Medicine, Chang Gung University, Kaohsiung, 833, Taiwan.
| | - Lung-Ming Fu
- Department of Engineering Science, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan, 701, Taiwan.
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Ng JS, Hashimoto M. 3D-PAD: Paper-Based Analytical Devices with Integrated Three-Dimensional Features. BIOSENSORS 2021; 11:84. [PMID: 33802637 PMCID: PMC8002416 DOI: 10.3390/bios11030084] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/31/2020] [Revised: 02/14/2021] [Accepted: 02/16/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
This paper describes the use of fused deposition modeling (FDM) printing to fabricate paper-based analytical devices (PAD) with three-dimensional (3D) features, which is termed as 3D-PAD. Material depositions followed by heat reflow is a standard approach for the fabrication of PAD. Such devices are primarily two-dimensional (2D) and can hold only a limited amount of liquid samples in the device. This constraint can pose problems when the sample consists of organic solvents that have low interfacial energies with the hydrophobic barriers. To overcome this limitation, we developed a method to fabricate PAD integrated with 3D features (vertical walls as an example) by FDM 3D printing. 3D-PADs were fabricated using two types of thermoplastics. One thermoplastic had a low melting point that formed hydrophobic barriers upon penetration, and another thermoplastic had a high melting point that maintained 3D features on the filter paper without reflowing. We used polycaprolactone (PCL) for the former, and polylactic acid (PLA) for the latter. Both PCL and PLA were printed with FDM without gaps at the interface, and the resulting paper-based devices possessed hydrophobic barriers consisting of PCL seamlessly integrated with vertical features consisting of PLA. We validated the capability of 3D-PAD to hold 30 μL of solvents (ethanol, isopropyl alcohol, and acetone), all of which would not be retained on conventional PADs fabricated with solid wax printers. To highlight the importance of containing an increased amount of liquid samples, a colorimetric assay for the formation of dimethylglyoxime (DMG)-Ni (II) was demonstrated using two volumes (10 μL and 30 μL) of solvent-based dimethylglyoxime (DMG). FDM printing of 3D-PAD enabled the facile construction of 3D structures integrated with PAD, which would find applications in paper-based chemical and biological assays requiring organic solvents.
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Affiliation(s)
- James S. Ng
- Pillar of Engineering Product Development, Singapore University of Technology and Design, 8 Somapah Road, Singapore 487372, Singapore;
| | - Michinao Hashimoto
- Pillar of Engineering Product Development, Singapore University of Technology and Design, 8 Somapah Road, Singapore 487372, Singapore;
- SUTD-MIT International Design Centre, Singapore University of Technology and Design, 8 Somapah Road, Singapore 487372, Singapore
- Digital Manufacturing and Design Centre, Singapore University of Technology and Design, 8 Somapah Road, Singapore 487372, Singapore
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Manmana Y, Kubo T, Otsuka K. Recent developments of point-of-care (POC) testing platform for biomolecules. Trends Analyt Chem 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.trac.2020.116160] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
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Ryan K, Tekwani BL. Current investigations on clinical pharmacology and therapeutics of Glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase deficiency. Pharmacol Ther 2020; 222:107788. [PMID: 33326820 DOI: 10.1016/j.pharmthera.2020.107788] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/04/2020] [Revised: 12/04/2020] [Accepted: 12/05/2020] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Glucose-6-phospate dehydrogenase (G6PD) deficiency is estimated to affect more than 400 million people world-wide. This X-linked genetic deficiency puts stress on red blood cells (RBC), which may be further augmented under certain pathophysiological conditions and drug treatments. These conditions can cause hemolytic anemia and eventually lead to multi-organ failure and mortality. G6PD is involved in the rate-limiting step of the pentose phosphate pathway, which generates reduced nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADPH). In RBCs, the NADPH/G6PD pathway is the only source for recycling reduced glutathione and provides protection from oxidative stress. Susceptibility of G6PD deficient populations to certain drug treatments and potential risks of hemolysis are important public health issues. A number of clinical trials are currently in progress investigating clinical factors associated with G6PD deficiency, validation of new diagnostic kits for G6PD deficiency, and evaluating drug safety, efficacy, and pathophysiology. More than 25 clinical studies in G6PD populations are currently in progress or have just been completed that have been examined for clinical pharmacology and potential therapeutic implications of G6PD deficiency. The information on clinical conditions, interventions, purpose, outcome, and status of these clinical trials has been studied. A critical review of ongoing clinical investigations on pharmacology and therapeutics of G6PD deficiency should be highly important for researchers, clinical pharmacologists, pharmaceutical companies, and global public health agencies. The information may be useful for developing strategies for treatment and control of hemolytic crisis and potential drug toxicities in G6PD deficient patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kaitlyn Ryan
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Division of Drug Discovery, Southern Research, 2000 9(th) Avenue South, Birmingham, AL 35205, United States of America.
| | - Babu L Tekwani
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Division of Drug Discovery, Southern Research, 2000 9(th) Avenue South, Birmingham, AL 35205, United States of America.
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