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Vaze R, Gadde S, Rathi A, Rathi VL, Jadhav S. Catalytic action of alternansucrase on sucrose under in vitro simulated gastric conditions. Carbohydr Res 2024; 542:109202. [PMID: 38954850 DOI: 10.1016/j.carres.2024.109202] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/22/2024] [Revised: 06/21/2024] [Accepted: 06/28/2024] [Indexed: 07/04/2024]
Abstract
Alternansucrase, a glucosyltransferase, is currently used to produce slowly digestible alternan oligosaccharides or maltooligosaccharides from sucrose. These oligosaccharides are popular for food fortification to lower postprandial glucose levels. This study aimed to explore the enzymatic reaction of alternansucrase in simulated in vitro gastric reaction conditions. Under the studied conditions, SucroSEB (a model enzyme for alternansucrase) hydrolyzed the sucrose and transglycosylated the glucose to produce glucans, both in the absence and presence of acceptors. The preference of the acceptor was maltose˃ raffinose˃ lactose. The rate of sucrose hydrolysis was significantly higher in the presence of maltose (p = 0.024). The glucans formed during the reaction included oligomers (DP 3-10) and polymers (DP ≥ 11), both of which increased over time. These glucans contained α-1,3 and α-1,6 glycosidic linkages, confirmed by 1H and 13C NMR. They were slowly and partially digestible in the presence of rat intestinal extract in contrast to the complete and rapid digestion of starch. The glucans formed after a longer gastric reaction time exhibited higher dietary fiber potential (19.145 ± 4.77 %; 60 min) compared to those formed during the initial phase (2.765 ± 0.19 %; 15 min). Overall, this study demonstrated the efficacy of SucroSEB in converting sucrose to slowly and partially digestible glucans under simulated in vitro gastric conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rutuja Vaze
- Human Nutrition Department, Advanced Enzymes Technologies Ltd., Louiswadi, Thane, 400604, India
| | - Sriteja Gadde
- Human Nutrition Department, Advanced Enzymes Technologies Ltd., Louiswadi, Thane, 400604, India
| | - Abhijit Rathi
- Human Nutrition Department, Advanced Enzymes Technologies Ltd., Louiswadi, Thane, 400604, India
| | - V L Rathi
- Human Nutrition Department, Advanced Enzymes Technologies Ltd., Louiswadi, Thane, 400604, India
| | - Swati Jadhav
- Human Nutrition Department, Advanced Enzymes Technologies Ltd., Louiswadi, Thane, 400604, India.
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2
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Fang Y, Dong M, van Leeuwen SS, Dijkhuizen L, Meng X, Liu W. Biochemical characterization of glycoside hydrolase family 31 α-glucosidases from Myceliophthora thermophila for α-glucooligosaccharide synthesis. Int J Biol Macromol 2023; 252:126452. [PMID: 37619677 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2023.126452] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/03/2023] [Revised: 07/10/2023] [Accepted: 08/20/2023] [Indexed: 08/26/2023]
Abstract
The transglucosidase activity of GH31 α-glucosidases is employed to catalyze the synthesis of prebiotic isomaltooligosaccharides (IMOs) using the malt syrup prepared from starch as substrate. Continuous mining for new GH31 α-glucosidases with high stability and efficient transglucosidase activity is critical for enhancing the supply and quality of IMO preparations. In the present study, two α-glucosidases (MT31α1 and MT31α2) from Myceliophthora thermophila were explored for biochemical characterization. The optimum pH and temperature of MT31α1 and MT31α2 were determined to be pH 4.5 and 65 °C, and pH 6.5 and 60 °C, respectively. Both MT31α1 and MT31α2 were shown to be stable in the pH range of 3.0 to 10.0. MT31α1 displayed a high thermostability, retaining 60 % of activity after incubation for 24 h at 55 °C. MT31α1 is highly active on substrates with all types of α-glucosidic linkages. In contrast, MT31α2 showed preference for substrates with α-(1→3) and α-(1→4) linkages. Importantly, MT31α1 was able to synthesize IMOs and the conversion rate of maltose into the main functional IMOs components reached over 40 %. Moreover, MT31α2 synthesizes glucooligosaccharides with (consecutive) α-(1→3) linkages. Taken together, MT31α1 and MT31α2, showing distinct substrate and product specificity, hold clear potential for the synthesis of prebiotic glucooligosaccharides.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yu Fang
- State Key Laboratory of Microbial Technology, Microbial Technology Institute, Shandong University, No.72 Binhai Road, Qingdao 266237, PR China
| | - Meihong Dong
- State Key Laboratory of Microbial Technology, Microbial Technology Institute, Shandong University, No.72 Binhai Road, Qingdao 266237, PR China
| | - Sander S van Leeuwen
- Laboratory Medicine, University Medical Center Groningen (UMCG), Hanzeplein 1, 9713 GZ Groningen, the Netherlands
| | - Lubbert Dijkhuizen
- Microbiology, Groningen Biomolecular Sciences and Biotechnology Institute (GBB), University of Groningen, Nijenborgh 7, 9747 AG Groningen, the Netherlands; CarbExplore Research BV, Zernikepark 12, 9747 AN Groningen, the Netherlands
| | - Xiangfeng Meng
- State Key Laboratory of Microbial Technology, Microbial Technology Institute, Shandong University, No.72 Binhai Road, Qingdao 266237, PR China.
| | - Weifeng Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Microbial Technology, Microbial Technology Institute, Shandong University, No.72 Binhai Road, Qingdao 266237, PR China
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Yang Y, Sun Y, Zhang T, Hamaker BR, Miao M. Biofabrication, structure, and functional characteristics of a reuteran-like glucan with low digestibility. Carbohydr Polym 2023; 305:120447. [PMID: 36737220 DOI: 10.1016/j.carbpol.2022.120447] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/20/2022] [Revised: 12/03/2022] [Accepted: 12/06/2022] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
A novel reuteran-like glucan with low digestibility was fabricated using microbial glucanotransferase (GTase) treated maltodextrin. For GTase treated maltodextrin with DE 6, the molecular weight of reuteran-like glucan increased from 8.35 × 104 to 5.14 × 106 g/mol in the initial 6 h, increasing to 1.47 × 107 g/mol at 72 h. The short chain fraction (DP 3-12) of reuteran-like glucan increased from 45.2 % to 100.0 %, accompanied by an increase in α-1,6 glycosidic linkage percentage from 3.9 % to 33.3 %. This reaction promoted rearrangements in glycosidic chains, leading to a substantial increase in resistant starch content (13.4 % to 37.4 %) in the reuteran-like glucan. During in vitro fecal fermentation for 48 h, the reuteran-like glucan yielded large amounts of short-chain fatty acids (212.33 mM), especially butyric acid (12.64 mM). Thus, reuteran-like glucan could be used as a low-digestible and highly fermentable fiber for controlling blood glucose levels and prebiotic potential.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuqi Yang
- State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Technology, Jiangnan University, 1800 Lihu Avenue, Wuxi, Jiangsu 214122, PR China
| | - Yujing Sun
- State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Technology, Jiangnan University, 1800 Lihu Avenue, Wuxi, Jiangsu 214122, PR China
| | - Tao Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Technology, Jiangnan University, 1800 Lihu Avenue, Wuxi, Jiangsu 214122, PR China
| | - Bruce R Hamaker
- State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Technology, Jiangnan University, 1800 Lihu Avenue, Wuxi, Jiangsu 214122, PR China
| | - Ming Miao
- State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Technology, Jiangnan University, 1800 Lihu Avenue, Wuxi, Jiangsu 214122, PR China.
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Zeng M, Li N, Astmann T, Oh JH, van Pijkeren JP, Pan X. Facile and efficient chemical synthesis of gluco-oligosaccharides (GlcOS) with diverse glycosidic linkages as potential prebiotics to promote the growth of probiotic bacteria. Food Res Int 2023; 165:112436. [PMID: 36869469 DOI: 10.1016/j.foodres.2022.112436] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/06/2022] [Revised: 12/24/2022] [Accepted: 12/29/2022] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
Glucose-based short-chain oligosaccharides (gluco-oligosaccharides, GlcOS) have been established as functional food ingredients with health-promoting properties. Currently, GlcOS (e.g., isomalto-oligosaccharides, IMOs) are commercially produced via enzymatic processes, which face the challenges of low yield and high cost. Therefore, developing efficient technologies for large-scale production of prebiotic GlcOS is highly desirable. Herein, a facile chemical process was developed to synthesize GlcOS as potential prebiotics via enhanced dehydration condensation of glucose in concentrated sulfuric acid (60-92 %). The maximum GlcOS yield of 83 % was achieved under the optimal condition of 50 % initial glucose loading, 76 % H2SO4, 70 °C, and 20 min. Structural analysis revealed that the synthesized GlcOS are mainly short-chain oligomers with a degree of polymerization (DP) between 2 and 4 (46 % DP 2, 22 % DP 3, 12 % DP 4) and a small percentage of larger oligosaccharides (DP 5-9), which are linked by predominantly α- and β-(1→6) linkages along with (1→4), (1→ 3), (1→2), and (1↔1) linkages. In vitro fermentation experiments by probiotic Bifidobacterium bifidum ATCC 29521, Bifidobacterium animalis subsp. lactis DSM 10140, and Limosilactobacillus reuteri ATCC 6475 indicated that the GlcOS can be utilized as a carbon source for bacterial growth, and their promotion effect was overall comparable to three commercial prebiotic IMOs. GlcOS were also successfully synthesized from maltose and cellobiose with similar yield and structures to those from glucose, implying the possibility of synthesizing the prebiotic GlcOS directly from inexpensive starch and cellulose.
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Affiliation(s)
- Meijun Zeng
- Department of Biological Systems Engineering, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI 53706, USA
| | - Ning Li
- Department of Biological Systems Engineering, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI 53706, USA
| | - Theresa Astmann
- Department of Food Science, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI 53706, USA
| | - Jee-Hwan Oh
- Department of Food Science, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI 53706, USA
| | | | - Xuejun Pan
- Department of Biological Systems Engineering, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI 53706, USA.
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Kwak SH, Kim H, Lee S, Lim J, Pal K, Chung B, Kang DH, Kim D. Synthesis and biological characterization of low-calorie Schisandra chinensis syrup. Food Sci Biotechnol 2022; 31:857-865. [PMID: 35720467 PMCID: PMC9203617 DOI: 10.1007/s10068-022-01061-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/13/2021] [Revised: 02/24/2022] [Accepted: 02/27/2022] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Schisandra chinensis (Omija) is a well-known medicinal plant in East Asia. In this study, Omija oligosaccharide syrup was prepared from sucrose with Omija fruit extract using two glucansucrases of Leuconostoc mesenteroides B-512F/KM and L. mesenteroides B-1355CF10/KM. The degree of polymerization of Omija oligosaccharide syrup was ranged from 2 - 13 by MALDI-TOF-MS analysis. Compared to the Omija syrup, the Omija oligosaccharide syrup reduced 61% calories based on the enzymatic gravimetric method. It also reduced up to 96% insoluble glucan formation from sucrose by mutansucrase of Streptococcus mutans at 500 mg/mL. Additionally, it has 1.78-fold higher oxygen radical absorbance capacity value compared to Omija syrup. Using electronic tongue sensor system, Omija oligosaccharide syrup showed decreased sourness, astringency, and saltiness compared to Omija syrup. Thus, Omija oligosaccharides can be used as functional sweetener in nutraceutical industries. Supplementary Information The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s10068-022-01061-8.
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Affiliation(s)
- So-Hyung Kwak
- grid.31501.360000 0004 0470 5905Graduate School of International Agricultural Technology, Seoul National University, Pyeongchang-gun, Gangwon-do, 25354 Republic of Korea
| | - Hayeong Kim
- grid.31501.360000 0004 0470 5905The Institute of Food Industrialization, Institutes of Green Bio Science &Technology, Seoul National University, Pyeongchang-gun, Gangwon-do, 25354 Republic of Korea
| | - Seonmin Lee
- grid.31501.360000 0004 0470 5905Graduate School of International Agricultural Technology, Seoul National University, Pyeongchang-gun, Gangwon-do, 25354 Republic of Korea
| | - Juho Lim
- grid.31501.360000 0004 0470 5905Graduate School of International Agricultural Technology, Seoul National University, Pyeongchang-gun, Gangwon-do, 25354 Republic of Korea
| | - Kunal Pal
- grid.444703.00000 0001 0744 7946Department of Biotechnology and Medical Engineering, National Institute of Technology, Rourkela, 769008 India
| | - Byoungsang Chung
- Ottogi Sesame Mills Co., Ltd, Eumseong-gun, Chungcheongbuk-do 27623 Republic of Korea
| | - Dong-Hyun Kang
- grid.31501.360000 0004 0470 5905Department of Food and Animal Biotechnology, Department of Agricultural Biotechnology, Center for Food and Bioconvergence, and Research Institute for Agricultural and Life Sciences, Seoul National University, Gwanak-gu, Seoul, 08826 Republic of Korea
| | - Doman Kim
- grid.31501.360000 0004 0470 5905Graduate School of International Agricultural Technology, Seoul National University, Pyeongchang-gun, Gangwon-do, 25354 Republic of Korea
- grid.31501.360000 0004 0470 5905The Institute of Food Industrialization, Institutes of Green Bio Science &Technology, Seoul National University, Pyeongchang-gun, Gangwon-do, 25354 Republic of Korea
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Recent Advances in the Valorization of Algae Polysaccharides for Food and Nutraceutical Applications: a Review on the Role of Green Processing Technologies. FOOD BIOPROCESS TECH 2022. [DOI: 10.1007/s11947-022-02812-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
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Nguyen TTH, Lee DG, Apu MAI, Jung JH, Kim MK, Lim S, Chung B, Pal K, Kim D. The bifidogenic effects and dental plaque deformation of non-digestible isomaltooligosaccharides synthesized by dextransucrase and alternansucrase. Enzyme Microb Technol 2021; 153:109955. [PMID: 34826778 DOI: 10.1016/j.enzmictec.2021.109955] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/13/2021] [Revised: 11/13/2021] [Accepted: 11/17/2021] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Non-digestible isomaltooligosaccharides (NDIMOS) are functional food and beverage ingredients that contributed to human health benefits through metabolism of gastrointestinal microorganism. In this study, NDIMOS were synthesized by combine dextransucrase from Leuconostoc mesenteroides B512F/KM and alternansucrase from L. mesenteroides NRRL 1355CF10/KM using sucrose as substrate and maltose as acceptor. Their digestibility was confirmed by using digestive enzymes including α-amylase and amyloglucosidase. NDIMOS inhibited insoluble glucan formation through mutansucrase from Streptococcus mutans. The bifidogenic effect of NDIMOS was investigated by growth of four strains of Bifidobacterium in MRS broth containing NDIMOS, compared with MRS broth contain glucose and negative control. Additionally, Bifidobacterium bifidum or Bifidobacterium adolescentis inhibited the growth of Salmonella enterica serovar typhimurium when they were co-cultivation in MRS broth containing NDIMOS. These results suggested that NDIMOS is potential functional ingredient for food, beverage, and pharmaceutical application.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thi Thanh Hanh Nguyen
- Institute of Food Industrialization, Institutes of Green Bio Science & Technology, Seoul National University, Pyeongchang-gun, 25354, Gangwon-do, Republic of Korea
| | - Dong-Gu Lee
- Graduate School of International Agricultural Technology, Seoul National University, Pyeongchang-gun, 25354, Gangwon-do, Republic of Korea
| | - Md Aminul Islam Apu
- Graduate School of International Agricultural Technology, Seoul National University, Pyeongchang-gun, 25354, Gangwon-do, Republic of Korea
| | - Jong-Hyun Jung
- Radiation Research Division, Korea Atomic Energy Research Institute, Jeongeup, 56212, Jeollabuk-do, Republic of Korea
| | - Min-Kyu Kim
- Radiation Research Division, Korea Atomic Energy Research Institute, Jeongeup, 56212, Jeollabuk-do, Republic of Korea
| | - Sangyong Lim
- Radiation Research Division, Korea Atomic Energy Research Institute, Jeongeup, 56212, Jeollabuk-do, Republic of Korea
| | - Byoungsang Chung
- Ottogi Sesame Mills Co., Ltd, Eumseong-gun, 27623, Chungcheongbuk-do, Republic of Korea
| | - Kunal Pal
- Department of Biotechnology and Medical Engineering, National Institute of Technology, Rourkela, 769008, India
| | - Doman Kim
- Institute of Food Industrialization, Institutes of Green Bio Science & Technology, Seoul National University, Pyeongchang-gun, 25354, Gangwon-do, Republic of Korea; Graduate School of International Agricultural Technology, Seoul National University, Pyeongchang-gun, 25354, Gangwon-do, Republic of Korea.
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Collins SM, Gibson GR, Kennedy OB, Walton G, Rowland I, Commane DM. Development of a prebiotic blend to influence in vitro fermentation effects, with a focus on propionate, in the gut. FEMS Microbiol Ecol 2021; 97:6319498. [PMID: 34251412 DOI: 10.1093/femsec/fiab101] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/26/2021] [Accepted: 07/09/2021] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Short chain fatty acids (SCFAs) derived from the human gut microbiota, and in particular propionate, may beneficially influence metabolic processes such as appetite regulation. Development of prebiotics that induce high propionate levels during fermentation is desirable. A total of 11 candidate prebiotics were screened to investigate their fermentation characteristics, with a focus on propionate production in mixed anaerobic batch culture of faecal bacteria. Further to this, a continuous 3-stage colonic fermentation model (simulating the human colon) was used to evaluate changes in microbial ecology, lactate and SCFA production of three 50:50 blends, comprising both slow and rapidly fermented prebiotics. In mixed batch culture: xylo-oligosaccharide, polydextrose and α-gluco-oligosaccharide were associated with the greatest increase in propionate. Polydextrose, α-gluco-oligosaccharide, β-1,4 glucan and oat fibre induced the greatest reductions in the acetate to propionate ratio. The most bifidogenic prebiotics were the oligosaccharides. Fermentation of a 50:50 blend of inulin and arabinoxylan, through the continuous 3-stage colonic fermentation model, induced a substantial and sustained release of propionate. The sustained release of propionate through the colon, if replicable in vivo, could potentially influence blood glucose, blood lipids and appetite regulation, however, dietary intervention studies are needed. Bifidogenic effects were also observed for the inulin and arabinoxylan blend and an increase synthesis of butyrate and lactate, thus indicating wider prebiotic potential.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sineaid M Collins
- Department of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Surrey, Stag Hill, Guildford, GU2 7XH, UK
| | - Glenn R Gibson
- Department of Food and Nutritional Sciences, University of Reading, Whiteknights Campus, Reading RG6 6AP, UK
| | - Orla B Kennedy
- Department of Food and Nutritional Sciences, University of Reading, Whiteknights Campus, Reading RG6 6AP, UK
| | - Gemma Walton
- Department of Food and Nutritional Sciences, University of Reading, Whiteknights Campus, Reading RG6 6AP, UK
| | - Ian Rowland
- Department of Food and Nutritional Sciences, University of Reading, Whiteknights Campus, Reading RG6 6AP, UK
| | - Daniel M Commane
- Department of Applied and Health Sciences, Northumbria University, Newcastle upon Tyne, NE2 4HH, UK
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Hu X, Song L, Yang Y, Wang L, Li Y, Miao M. Biosynthesis, structural characteristics and prebiotic properties of maltitol-based acceptor products. J Funct Foods 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jff.2021.104374] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022] Open
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Yang Y, Ma Y, Hu X, Cui SW, Zhang T, Miao M. Reuteransucrase-catalytic kinetic modeling and functional characteristics for novel prebiotic gluco-oligomers. Food Funct 2020; 11:7037-7047. [PMID: 32812985 DOI: 10.1039/d0fo00225a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/17/2023]
Abstract
This work describes the reuteransucrase-catalyzed reaction and structural characterization as well as in vitro fermentation for the acceptor products of gluco-oligomers from sucrose and maltose. At a low concentration of sucrose, the production of gluco-oligomers was favored, resulting in a relatively large number of acceptor products (DP3-5). A mathematical model was also proposed to simulate gluco-oligomer production depending on the reaction conditions. The fine structures of major linear gluco-oligomer fractions for a sucrose : maltose ratio of 1 : 1 were assigned as follows: α-d-Glcp-(1→6)-α-d-Glcp-(1→4)-d-Glcp, α-d-Glcp-(1→4)-α-d-Glcp-(1→4)-α-d-Glcp-(1→4)-d-Glcp, α-d-Glcp-(1→4)-α-d-Glcp-(1→6)-α-d-Glcp-(1→4)-d-Glcp, and α-d-Glcp-(1→6)-α-d-Glcp-(1→4)-α-d-Glcp-(1→6)-α-d-Glcp-(1→4)-d-Glcp, respectively. Compared with dextran and GOS57, the results of fermentation selectivity indicated that gluco-oligomers promoted the proliferation of gut bacteria and total SCFA production with a higher concentration of propionate. These data suggested that the gluco-oligomers synthesized via the reuteransucrase acceptor reaction had a prebiotic effect on gastrointestinal health.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuqi Yang
- State Key Laboratory of Food Science & Technology, Jiangnan University, 1800 Lihu Avenue, Wuxi, Jiangsu 214122, P. R. China.
| | - Yajun Ma
- State Key Laboratory of Food Science & Technology, Jiangnan University, 1800 Lihu Avenue, Wuxi, Jiangsu 214122, P. R. China.
| | - Xiuting Hu
- State Key Laboratory of Food Science & Technology, Jiangnan University, 1800 Lihu Avenue, Wuxi, Jiangsu 214122, P. R. China.
| | - Steve W Cui
- State Key Laboratory of Food Science & Technology, Jiangnan University, 1800 Lihu Avenue, Wuxi, Jiangsu 214122, P. R. China. and Guelph Food Research Centre, Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, 93 Stone Road West, Guelph, Ont., Canada N1G 5C9
| | - Tao Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Food Science & Technology, Jiangnan University, 1800 Lihu Avenue, Wuxi, Jiangsu 214122, P. R. China.
| | - Ming Miao
- State Key Laboratory of Food Science & Technology, Jiangnan University, 1800 Lihu Avenue, Wuxi, Jiangsu 214122, P. R. China.
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