1
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Dearg M, Lethbridge S, McCormack J, Palmer RE, Slater TJA. Characterisation of the morphology of surface-assembled Au nanoclusters on amorphous carbon. NANOSCALE 2024; 16:10827-10832. [PMID: 38768221 DOI: 10.1039/d4nr00978a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/22/2024]
Abstract
In this study, aberration-corrected scanning transmission electron microscopy is employed to investigate the morphology of Au clusters formed from the aggregation of single atoms sputtered onto an amorphous carbon surface. The morphologies of surface-assembled clusters of N > 100 atoms are referenced against the morphologies of size-selected clusters determined from previously published results. We observe that surface-assembled clusters (at the conditions employed here) are approximately spherical in shape. The structural isomers of the imaged clusters have also been identified, and the distribution of structural types is broadly in agreement with those from size-selected cluster deposition sources. For clusters of approximately 147 atoms, we find a preference for icosahedra over decahedra and truncated octahedra, but at this size there is a high proportion of unidentified/amorphous structures. At around 309 atoms, we find a preference for decahedra over icosahedra and truncated octahedra, but over half the structures remain unidentifiable/amorphous. For sizes above approximately 561 atoms we are able to identify most of the structures, and find decahedra are still the most favoured, although in competition with single-crystal fcc morphologies. The similarity in structure between surface-assembled and size-selected clusters from a cluster source provides evidence of the relevance of size-selected cluster studies to clusters synthesised by other, industrially relevant, methodologies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Malcolm Dearg
- Cardiff Catalysis Institute, School of Chemistry, Cardiff University, Cardiff, CF24 4HQ, UK.
- School of Physics, Engineering and Technology, University of York, York, YO10 5DD, UK
| | - Sean Lethbridge
- Nanomaterials Lab, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Faculty of Science and Engineering, Swansea University, Bay Campus, Swansea, SA1 8EN, UK
| | - James McCormack
- Nanomaterials Lab, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Faculty of Science and Engineering, Swansea University, Bay Campus, Swansea, SA1 8EN, UK
| | - Richard E Palmer
- Nanomaterials Lab, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Faculty of Science and Engineering, Swansea University, Bay Campus, Swansea, SA1 8EN, UK
| | - Thomas J A Slater
- Cardiff Catalysis Institute, School of Chemistry, Cardiff University, Cardiff, CF24 4HQ, UK.
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2
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Weal GR, Guðmundsson KI, Mackenzie FD, Whiting JR, Smith NB, Skúlason E, Garden AL. Calculations of the effect of catalyst size and structure on the electrocatalytic reduction of CO 2 on Cu nanoclusters. NANOSCALE 2024; 16:5242-5256. [PMID: 38362911 DOI: 10.1039/d3nr04956f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/17/2024]
Abstract
The structure and catalytic properties of Cu nanoclusters of sizes between 55 and 147 atoms were examined to understand if small Cu clusters could provide enhancement over traditional catalysts for the electrocatalysis of CO2 to CO and carbon-based fuels, such as CH4 and CH3OH, compared to bulk Cu surfaces and large Cu nanoparticles. Clusters studied included Cu55, Cu78, Cu101, Cu124, and Cu147, the structures of which were determined using global optimisation. The majority of Cu clusters examined were icosahedral, including the perfect closed-shell, partial-shell, elongated and distorted icosahedral clusters. Free energy diagrams for the reduction of CO2 showed the potential required for the formation of CO is notably smaller for all cluster sizes considered, relative to Cu(111). Less variation is observed for the limiting potential for the formation of CH4 and CH3OH. However, it was found that clusters that are either a distorted motif or contain vacancy defects yielded the best activity and provide an interesting synthesis target for future experiments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Geoffrey R Weal
- Department of Chemistry, University of Otago, P.O. Box 56, Dunedin 9054, New Zealand.
- The MacDiarmid Institute for Advanced Materials and Nanotechnology, Victoria University of Wellington, P.O. Box 600, Wellington 6140, New Zealand
| | - Kristinn Ingi Guðmundsson
- Science Institute and Faculty of Industrial Engineering, Mechanical Engineering and Computer Science, University of Iceland, VR-III, 107 Reykjavík, Iceland
| | - Frank D Mackenzie
- Department of Chemistry, University of Otago, P.O. Box 56, Dunedin 9054, New Zealand.
- The MacDiarmid Institute for Advanced Materials and Nanotechnology, Victoria University of Wellington, P.O. Box 600, Wellington 6140, New Zealand
| | - John R Whiting
- Department of Chemistry, University of Otago, P.O. Box 56, Dunedin 9054, New Zealand.
- The MacDiarmid Institute for Advanced Materials and Nanotechnology, Victoria University of Wellington, P.O. Box 600, Wellington 6140, New Zealand
| | - Nicholas B Smith
- Department of Chemistry, University of Otago, P.O. Box 56, Dunedin 9054, New Zealand.
- The MacDiarmid Institute for Advanced Materials and Nanotechnology, Victoria University of Wellington, P.O. Box 600, Wellington 6140, New Zealand
| | - Egill Skúlason
- Science Institute and Faculty of Industrial Engineering, Mechanical Engineering and Computer Science, University of Iceland, VR-III, 107 Reykjavík, Iceland
| | - Anna L Garden
- Department of Chemistry, University of Otago, P.O. Box 56, Dunedin 9054, New Zealand.
- The MacDiarmid Institute for Advanced Materials and Nanotechnology, Victoria University of Wellington, P.O. Box 600, Wellington 6140, New Zealand
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3
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Smith NB, Jowett T, Yu D, Pahl E, Garden AL. Comparison of Taboo Search Methods for Atomic Cluster Global Optimization with a Basin-Hopping Algorithm. J Chem Inf Model 2023; 63:5784-5793. [PMID: 37665618 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jcim.3c00526] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 09/05/2023]
Abstract
The basin-hopping algorithm (BHA) allows for the efficient exploration of atomic cluster potential energy surfaces by random perturbations in configuration space, followed by energy minimizations. Here, the taboo search method is incorporated to prevent the search from revisiting recently visited regions of the search space. Two taboo search modes are implemented, one mode resets the search to random coordinates upon encountering the taboo region, while the other simply rejects any proposed move into the taboo region. These two modes are tested and compared on a variety of potential energy surfaces─several clusters where atomic interactions are described by the Lennard-Jones potential, and Au55 where a semi-empirical tight binding potential is used to describe atomic interactions. Some differences in performance between the two taboo search modes were noted for LJ38 and Au55, with the mode that rejects all hops into the taboo region performing better, offering a means to improve the efficiency of the BHA for multifunnel systems. However, both taboo search modes failed to significantly improve performance on multifunnel systems where more than two funnels were present in the system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicholas B Smith
- Department of Chemistry, University of Otago, P.O. Box 56, Dunedin 9054, New Zealand
- MacDiarmid Institute for Advanced Materials and Nanotechnology, Victoria University of Wellington, P.O. Box 600, Wellington 6140, New Zealand
| | - Tim Jowett
- Department of Mathematics and Statistics, University of Otago, P.O. Box 56, Dunedin 9054, New Zealand
| | - Diana Yu
- MacDiarmid Institute for Advanced Materials and Nanotechnology, Victoria University of Wellington, P.O. Box 600, Wellington 6140, New Zealand
- Department of Physics, University of Auckland, Auckland 1010, New Zealand
| | - Elke Pahl
- MacDiarmid Institute for Advanced Materials and Nanotechnology, Victoria University of Wellington, P.O. Box 600, Wellington 6140, New Zealand
- Department of Physics, University of Auckland, Auckland 1010, New Zealand
| | - Anna L Garden
- Department of Chemistry, University of Otago, P.O. Box 56, Dunedin 9054, New Zealand
- MacDiarmid Institute for Advanced Materials and Nanotechnology, Victoria University of Wellington, P.O. Box 600, Wellington 6140, New Zealand
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Abstract
A significant challenge in the development of functional materials is understanding the growth and transformations of anisotropic colloidal metal nanocrystals. Theory and simulations can aid in the development and understanding of anisotropic nanocrystal syntheses. The focus of this review is on how results from first-principles calculations and classical techniques, such as Monte Carlo and molecular dynamics simulations, have been integrated into multiscale theoretical predictions useful in understanding shape-selective nanocrystal syntheses. Also, examples are discussed in which machine learning has been useful in this field. There are many areas at the frontier in condensed matter theory and simulation that are or could be beneficial in this area and these prospects for future progress are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kristen A Fichthorn
- Department of Chemical Engineering and Department of Physics The Pennsylvania State University University Park, Pennsylvania 16803 United States
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5
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Sumer A, Jellinek J. Computational Studies of Structural, Energetic and Electronic Properties of Pure Pt and Mo and Mixed Pt/Mo Clusters: Comparative Analysis of Characteristics and Trends. J Chem Phys 2022; 157:034301. [DOI: 10.1063/5.0099760] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
The added technological potential of bimetallic clusters and nanoparticles, as compared to their pure counterparts, stems from the ability to further fine-tune their properties, and, consequently, functionalities, through a simultaneous use of the "knobs" of size and composition. The practical realization of this potential can be greatly advanced by the knowledge of the correlations and relationships between the various characteristics of bimetallic nanosystems and those of their pure counterparts and constituent components. Here we present results of a density functional theory study of pure Ptn and Mon clusters aimed at revisiting and exploring further their structural, electronic and energetic properties. These are then used as a basis for analysis and characterization of the results of calculations on two-component Ptn-mMom clusters. The analysis also includes establishing relationships between the properties of the Ptn-mMom clusters and those of their Ptn-m and Mom components. A particularly intriguing findings suggested by the calculations is a linear dependence of the average binding energy per atom in sets of Ptn-mMom clusters that have the same fixed number m of Mo atoms and different number n-m of Pt atoms on the fractional content (n-m)/n of Pt atoms. We derive an analytical model that establishes the fundamental basis for this linearity and expresses its parameters - the m-dependent slope and intercept - in terms of characteristic properties of the constituent components, such as the average binding energy per atom of Mom and the average per-atom adsorption energy of the Pt atoms on Mom.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Julius Jellinek
- Division of Chemical Sciences and Engineering, Argonne National Laboratory, United States of America
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6
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Kaatz FH, Murzin DY, Bultheel A. Coordination-Dependent Kinetics in the Catalysis of Gold Nanoclusters. ACS Catal 2021. [DOI: 10.1021/acscatal.1c00892] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Forrest H. Kaatz
- Institutional Research, Mesalands Community College, 911 South 10th Street, Tucumcari, New Mexico 88401, United States
| | - Dmitry Yu. Murzin
- Industrial Chemistry and Reaction Engineering, Abo Akademi University, Biskopsgatan 8, Turku 20500, Finland
| | - Adhemar Bultheel
- Department Computer Sci., KU Leuven, Celestijnenlaan 200A, 3001 Heverlee, Belgium
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7
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Hasegawa S, Takano S, Harano K, Tsukuda T. New Magic Au 24 Cluster Stabilized by PVP: Selective Formation, Atomic Structure, and Oxidation Catalysis. JACS AU 2021; 1:660-668. [PMID: 34467325 PMCID: PMC8395683 DOI: 10.1021/jacsau.1c00102] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/04/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
An unprecedented magic number cluster, Au24Cl x (x = 0-3), was selectively synthesized by the kinetically controlled reduction of the Au precursor ions in a microfluidic mixer in the presence of a large excess of poly(N-vinyl-2-pyrrolidone) (PVP). The atomic structure of the PVP-stabilized Au24Cl x was investigated by means of aberration-corrected transmission electron microscopy (ACTEM) and density functional theory (DFT) calculations. ACTEM video imaging revealed that the Au24Cl x clusters were stable against dissociation but fluctuated during the observation period. Some of the high-resolution ACTEM snapshots were explained by DFT-optimized isomeric structures in which all the constituent atoms were located on the surface. This observation suggests that the featureless optical spectrum of Au24Cl x is associated with the coexistence of distinctive isomers. X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy and Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy of CO adsorbates revealed the electron-rich nature of Au24Cl x clusters due to the interaction with PVP. The Au24Cl x :PVP clusters catalyzed the aerobic oxidation of benzyl alcohol derivatives without degradation. Hammett analysis and the kinetic isotope effect indicated that the hydride elimination by Au24Cl x was the rate-limiting step with an apparent activation energy of 56 ± 3 kJ/mol, whereas the oxygen pressure dependence of the reaction kinetics suggested the involvement of hydrogen abstraction by coadsorbed O2 as a faster process.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shingo Hasegawa
- Department
of Chemistry, Graduate School of Science, The University of Tokyo, 7-3-1 Hongo, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo 113-0033, Japan
| | - Shinjiro Takano
- Department
of Chemistry, Graduate School of Science, The University of Tokyo, 7-3-1 Hongo, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo 113-0033, Japan
| | - Koji Harano
- Department
of Chemistry, Graduate School of Science, The University of Tokyo, 7-3-1 Hongo, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo 113-0033, Japan
| | - Tatsuya Tsukuda
- Department
of Chemistry, Graduate School of Science, The University of Tokyo, 7-3-1 Hongo, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo 113-0033, Japan
- Elements
Strategy Initiative for Catalysts and Batteries (ESICB), Kyoto University, Katsura, Kyoto 615-8520, Japan
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8
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Weal GR, McIntyre SM, Garden AL. Development of a Structural Comparison Method to Promote Exploration of the Potential Energy Surface in the Global Optimization of Nanoclusters. J Chem Inf Model 2021; 61:1732-1744. [PMID: 33844537 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jcim.0c01128] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
A structural comparison method (SCM) was created to quantify the structural diversity of nanoclusters and was implemented into a global optimization algorithm to evaluate structural diversity between generated clusters on the fly and promote exploration of the potential energy surface. The SCM evaluated topological differences between clusters using the common neighbor analysis and provided a numerical measure of similarity between the two clusters. The SCM was implemented into a genetic algorithm by integrating it into a new structure + energy fitness operator such that structural diversity of clusters in the population and their energies were used to assign fitness values to clusters. The efficiency of the genetic algorithm with this new fitness operator was benchmarked against several Lennard-Jones clusters (LJ38, LJ75, and LJ98) known to be difficult cases for global optimization algorithms. For LJ38 and LJ75, this new structure + energy fitness operator performed equally well or better than the energy fitness operator. However, the efficiency of locating the global minimum of LJ98 decreased using this new structure + energy fitness operator. Further analysis of the genetic algorithm with this fitness operator showed that the algorithm did indeed promote exploration of the PES of LJ98 as desired but hindered refinement of clusters, preventing it from locating the global minimum even if the energy funnel of the global minimum had been located.
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Affiliation(s)
- Geoffrey R Weal
- Department of Chemistry, University of Otago, P.O. Box 56, Dunedin 9054, New Zealand.,The MacDiarmid Institute for Advanced Materials and Nanotechnology, Victoria University of Wellington, P.O. Box 600, Wellington 6140, New Zealand
| | - Samantha M McIntyre
- Department of Chemistry, University of Otago, P.O. Box 56, Dunedin 9054, New Zealand.,The MacDiarmid Institute for Advanced Materials and Nanotechnology, Victoria University of Wellington, P.O. Box 600, Wellington 6140, New Zealand
| | - Anna L Garden
- Department of Chemistry, University of Otago, P.O. Box 56, Dunedin 9054, New Zealand.,The MacDiarmid Institute for Advanced Materials and Nanotechnology, Victoria University of Wellington, P.O. Box 600, Wellington 6140, New Zealand
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9
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Gazzarrini E, Rossi K, Baletto F. Born to be different: the formation process of Cu nanoparticles tunes the size trend of the activity for CO 2 to CH 4 conversion. NANOSCALE 2021; 13:5857-5867. [PMID: 33720246 DOI: 10.1039/d0nr07889a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
We investigate the impact of the formation process of Cu nanoparticles on the distribution of adsorption sites and hence on their activity. Using molecular dynamics, we model formation pathways characteristic of physical synthesis routes as the annealing of a liquid droplet, the growth proceeding via the addition of single atoms, and the coalescence of individual nanoparticles. Each formation process leads to different and characteristic size-dependent distributions of their adsorption sites, catalogued and monitored on-the-fly by means of a suitable geometrical descriptor. Annealed or coalesced nanoparticles present a rather homogeneous distribution in the kind and relative abundance of non-equivalent adsorption sites. Atom-by-atom grown nanoparticles, instead, exhibit a more marked occurrence of adsorption sites corresponding to adatoms and small islands on (111) and (100) facets. Regardless of the formation process, highly coordinated sites are more likely in larger nanoparticles, while the abundance of low-coordination sites depends on the formation process and on the nanoparticle size. Furthermore, we show how each characteristic distribution of adsorption sites reflects in different size trends for the Cu-nanoparticle activity, taking as an example the electro-reduction of CO2 into CH4. To this end, we employ a multi-scale method and observe that the faceted but highly defected structures obtained during the atom-by-atom growth become more and more active with increasing size, with a mild dependence on the original seed. In contrast, the activity of Cu-nanoparticles obtained by annealing decreases with their size, while coalesced nanoparticles' activity shows a non-monotonic behaviour.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elena Gazzarrini
- Physics Department, King's College London, WC2R 2LS, London, UK.
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10
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Braunwarth L, Jung C, Jacob T. Exploring the Structure–Activity Relationship on Platinum Nanoparticles. Top Catal 2020. [DOI: 10.1007/s11244-020-01324-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
AbstractThe design of active and stable Pt-based nanoscale electrocatalysts for the oxygen reduction reaction (ORR) plays the central role in ameliorating the efficiency of proton exchange membrane fuel-cells towards future energy applications. On that front, theoretical studies have contributed significantly to this research area by gaining deeper insights and understanding of the ongoing processes. In this work, we present an approach capable of characterizing differently-shaped platinum nanoparticles undergoing thermally- and adsorbate-induced restructuring of the surface. Further, by performing ReaxFF-Grand Canonical Molecular Dynamics simulations we explored the water formation on these roughened (“realistic”) nanoparticles in a H2/O2 environment. Taking into consideration the coverage of oxygen-containing intermediates and occurring surface roughening the nanoparticles’ activities were explored. Hereby, we succeeded in locally resolving the water formation on the nanoparticles’ surfaces, allowing an allocation of the active sites for H2O production. We observed that exposed, low-coordinated sites as well as pit-shaped sites originating from roughening of vertices and edges are most active towards H2O formation.
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11
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Jindal S, Bulusu SS. Structural evolution in gold nanoparticles using artificial neural network based interatomic potentials. J Chem Phys 2020; 152:154302. [PMID: 32321271 DOI: 10.1063/1.5142903] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Shweta Jindal
- Discipline of Chemistry, Indian Institute of Technology Indore, Simrol, Indore 453552, India
| | - Satya S. Bulusu
- Discipline of Chemistry, Indian Institute of Technology Indore, Simrol, Indore 453552, India
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12
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Rossi K, Asara GG, Baletto F. Structural Screening and Design of Platinum Nanosamples for Oxygen Reduction. ACS Catal 2020. [DOI: 10.1021/acscatal.9b05202] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Kevin Rossi
- Physics Department, King’s College London, Strand, WC2R 2LS, United Kingdom
- Laboratory of Computational Science and Modeling (COSMO), Institute of Materials, Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), Lausanne, 1015, Switzerland
| | - Gian Giacomo Asara
- Physics Department, King’s College London, Strand, WC2R 2LS, United Kingdom
| | - Francesca Baletto
- Physics Department, King’s College London, Strand, WC2R 2LS, United Kingdom
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13
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Kirchhoff B, Braunwarth L, Jung C, Jónsson H, Fantauzzi D, Jacob T. Simulations of the Oxidation and Degradation of Platinum Electrocatalysts. SMALL (WEINHEIM AN DER BERGSTRASSE, GERMANY) 2020; 16:e1905159. [PMID: 31880069 DOI: 10.1002/smll.201905159] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/10/2019] [Revised: 11/17/2019] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Improved understanding of the fundamental processes leading to degradation of platinum nanoparticle electrocatalysts is essential to the continued advancement of their catalytic activity and stability. To this end, the oxidation of platinum nanoparticles is simulated using a ReaxFF reactive force field within a grand-canonical Monte Carlo scheme. 2-4 nm cuboctahedral particles serve as model systems, for which electrochemical potential-dependent phase diagrams are constructed from the thermodynamically most stable oxide structures, including solvation and thermochemical contributions. Calculations in this study suggest that surface oxide structures should become thermodynamically stable at voltages around 0.80-0.85 V versus standard hydrogen electrode, which corresponds to typical fuel cell operating conditions. The potential presence of a surface oxide during catalysis is usually not accounted for in theoretical studies of Pt electrocatalysts. Beyond 1.1 V, fragmentation of the catalyst particles into [Pt6 O8 ]4- clusters is observed. Density functional theory calculations confirm that [Pt6 O8 ]4- is indeed stable and hydrophilic. These results suggest that the formation of [Pt6 O8 ]4- may play an important role in platinum catalyst degradation as well as the electromotoric transport of Pt2+/4+ ions in fuel cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Björn Kirchhoff
- Science Institute and Faculty of Physical Sciences, University of Iceland, 107, Reykjavík, Iceland
- Institute of Electrochemistry, Ulm University, Albert-Einstein-Allee 47, 89081, Ulm, Germany
| | - Laura Braunwarth
- Institute of Electrochemistry, Ulm University, Albert-Einstein-Allee 47, 89081, Ulm, Germany
| | - Christoph Jung
- Helmholtz Institute Ulm (HIU) Electrochemical Energy Storage, Helmholtz-Straße 16, 89081, Ulm, Germany
- Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT), P.O. Box 3640, 76021, Karlsruhe, Germany
| | - Hannes Jónsson
- Science Institute and Faculty of Physical Sciences, University of Iceland, 107, Reykjavík, Iceland
| | - Donato Fantauzzi
- Science Institute and Faculty of Physical Sciences, University of Iceland, 107, Reykjavík, Iceland
- Helmholtz Institute Ulm (HIU) Electrochemical Energy Storage, Helmholtz-Straße 16, 89081, Ulm, Germany
- Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT), P.O. Box 3640, 76021, Karlsruhe, Germany
| | - Timo Jacob
- Institute of Electrochemistry, Ulm University, Albert-Einstein-Allee 47, 89081, Ulm, Germany
- Helmholtz Institute Ulm (HIU) Electrochemical Energy Storage, Helmholtz-Straße 16, 89081, Ulm, Germany
- Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT), P.O. Box 3640, 76021, Karlsruhe, Germany
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