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Plačkić A, Neubert TJ, Patel K, Kuhl M, Watanabe K, Taniguchi T, Zurutuza A, Sordan R, Balasubramanian K. Electrochemistry at the Edge of a van der Waals Heterostructure. SMALL (WEINHEIM AN DER BERGSTRASSE, GERMANY) 2024; 20:e2306361. [PMID: 38109121 DOI: 10.1002/smll.202306361] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/26/2023] [Revised: 10/19/2023] [Indexed: 12/19/2023]
Abstract
Artificial van der Waals heterostructures, obtained by stacking two-dimensional (2D) materials, represent a novel platform for investigating physicochemical phenomena and applications. Here, the electrochemistry at the one-dimensional (1D) edge of a graphene sheet, sandwiched between two hexagonal boron nitride (hBN) flakes, is reported. When such an hBN/graphene/hBN heterostructure is immersed in a solution, the basal plane of graphene is encapsulated by hBN, and the graphene edge is exclusively available in the solution. This forms an electrochemical nanoelectrode, enabling the investigation of electron transfer using several redox probes, e.g., ferrocene(di)methanol, hexaammineruthenium, methylene blue, dopamine and ferrocyanide. The low capacitance of the van der Waals edge electrode facilitates cyclic voltammetry at very high scan rates (up to 1000 V s-1), allowing voltammetric detection of redox species down to micromolar concentrations with sub-second time resolution. The nanoband nature of the edge electrode allows operation in water without added electrolyte. Finally, two adjacent edge electrodes are realized in a redox-cycling format. All the above-mentioned phenomena can be investigated at the edge, demonstrating that nanoscale electrochemistry is a new application avenue for van der Waals heterostructures. Such an edge electrode will be useful for studying electron transfer mechanisms and the detection of analyte species in ultralow sample volumes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aleksandra Plačkić
- L-NESS, Department of Physics, Politecnico di Milano, Via Anzani 42, Como, 22100, Italy
- BioSense Institute, University of Novi Sad, Dr Zorana Đinđića 1, Novi Sad, 21000, Serbia
| | - Tilmann J Neubert
- School of Analytical Sciences Adlershof (SALSA), IRIS Adlershof & Department of Chemistry, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Unter den Linden 6, 10099, Berlin, Germany
| | - Kishan Patel
- L-NESS, Department of Physics, Politecnico di Milano, Via Anzani 42, Como, 22100, Italy
| | - Michel Kuhl
- School of Analytical Sciences Adlershof (SALSA), IRIS Adlershof & Department of Chemistry, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Unter den Linden 6, 10099, Berlin, Germany
| | - Kenji Watanabe
- National Institute for Materials Science, 1-1 Namiki, Tsukuba, 305-0044, Japan
| | - Takashi Taniguchi
- National Institute for Materials Science, 1-1 Namiki, Tsukuba, 305-0044, Japan
| | - Amaia Zurutuza
- Graphenea Semiconductor SLU, Mikeletegi Pasealekua 83, San Sebastián, 20009, Spain
| | - Roman Sordan
- L-NESS, Department of Physics, Politecnico di Milano, Via Anzani 42, Como, 22100, Italy
| | - Kannan Balasubramanian
- School of Analytical Sciences Adlershof (SALSA), IRIS Adlershof & Department of Chemistry, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Unter den Linden 6, 10099, Berlin, Germany
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Miller C, Keattch O, Shergill RS, Patel BA. Evaluating diverse electrode surface patterns of 3D printed carbon thermoplastic electrochemical sensors. Analyst 2024; 149:1502-1508. [PMID: 38264850 DOI: 10.1039/d3an01592k] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/25/2024]
Abstract
Electrochemical sensing techniques rely on redox reactions taking place at the electrode surface. The configuration of this surface is of the utmost importance in the advancement of electrochemical sensors. The majority of previous electrode manufacturing methods, including 3D printing have produced electrodes with flat surfaces. There is a distinct potential for 3D printing to create intricate and distinctive electrode surface shapes. In the proposed work, 3D printed carbon black polylactic acid electrodes with nine different surface morphologies were made. These were compared to a flat surface electrode. To evaluate the performance of the electrodes, measurements were conducted in three different redox probes (ferrocene methanol, ferricyanide, and dopamine). Our findings highlighted that when electrodes were normalised for the geometric surface area of the electrode, the surface pattern of the electrode surface can impact the observed current and electron transfer kinetics. Electrodes that had a dome and flag pattern on the electrode surface showed the highest oxidation currents and had lower values for the difference between the anodic and cathodic peak current (ΔE). However, designs with rings had lower current values and higher ΔE values. These differences are most likely due to variations in the accessibility of conductive sites on the electrode surface due to the varying surface roughness of different patterned designs. Our findings highlight that when making electrodes using 3D printing, surface patterning of the electrode surface can be used as an effective approach to enhance the performance of the sensor for varying applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chloe Miller
- School of Applied Sciences, Brighton, BN2 4GJ, UK.
- Centre for Lifelong Health, Brighton, BN2 4GJ, UK
| | | | - Ricoveer S Shergill
- School of Applied Sciences, Brighton, BN2 4GJ, UK.
- Centre for Lifelong Health, Brighton, BN2 4GJ, UK
| | - Bhavik Anil Patel
- School of Applied Sciences, Brighton, BN2 4GJ, UK.
- Centre for Lifelong Health, Brighton, BN2 4GJ, UK
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Jungnickel R, Mirabella F, Stockmann JM, Radnik J, Balasubramanian K. Graphene-on-gold surface plasmon resonance sensors resilient to high-temperature annealing. Anal Bioanal Chem 2023; 415:371-377. [PMID: 36447098 PMCID: PMC9829571 DOI: 10.1007/s00216-022-04450-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/12/2022] [Revised: 11/14/2022] [Accepted: 11/17/2022] [Indexed: 12/05/2022]
Abstract
Gold films coated with a graphene sheet are being widely used as sensors for the detection of label-free binding interactions using surface plasmon resonance (SPR). During the preparation of such sensors, it is often essential to subject the sensor chips to a high-temperature treatment in order to ensure a clean graphene surface. However, sensor chips used currently, which often use chromium as an adhesion promoter, cannot be subjected to temperatures above 250 °C, because under such conditions, chromium is found to reorganize and diffuse to the surface, where it is easily oxidized, impairing the quality of SPR spectra. Here we present an optimized preparation strategy involving a three-cycle tempering coupled with chromium (oxide) etching, which allows the graphene-coated SPR chips to be annealed up to 500 °C with little deterioration of the surface morphology. In addition, the treatment delivers a surface that shows a clear enhancement in spectral response together with a good refractive index sensitivity. We demonstrate the applicability of our sensors by studying the kinetics of avidin-biotin binding at different pH repeatedly on the same chip. The possibility to anneal can be exploited to recover the original surface after sensing trials, which allowed us to reuse the sensor for at least six cycles of biomolecule adsorption.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert Jungnickel
- Department of Chemistry, School of Analytical Sciences Adlershof (SALSA) & IRIS Adlershof, Humboldt-Universität Zu Berlin, 10117 Berlin, Germany
| | - Francesca Mirabella
- Federal Institute for Materials Research and Testing (BAM), Richard-Willstätter-Str. 11, 12489 Berlin, Germany ,Present Address: SPECS Surface Nano Analysis GmbH, Voltastr. 5, 13355 Berlin, Germany
| | - Jörg Manfred Stockmann
- Federal Institute for Materials Research and Testing (BAM), Richard-Willstätter-Str. 11, 12489 Berlin, Germany
| | - Jörg Radnik
- Federal Institute for Materials Research and Testing (BAM), Richard-Willstätter-Str. 11, 12489 Berlin, Germany
| | - Kannan Balasubramanian
- Department of Chemistry, School of Analytical Sciences Adlershof (SALSA) & IRIS Adlershof, Humboldt-Universität Zu Berlin, 10117 Berlin, Germany
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Pavlov S, Kozhevnikova E, Kislenko S. Effect of the number of graphene layers on the electron transfer kinetics at metal/graphene heterostructures. J Electroanal Chem (Lausanne) 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jelechem.2022.116895] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/31/2022]
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Pavlov SV, Kozhevnikova YO, Kislenko VA, Kislenko SA. Modulation of the kinetics of outer-sphere electron transfer at graphene by a metal substrate. Phys Chem Chem Phys 2022; 24:25203-25213. [PMID: 36254968 DOI: 10.1039/d2cp03771h] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Abstract
Solid-supported graphene is a typical configuration of electrochemical devices based on single-layer graphene. Therefore, it is necessary to understand the electrochemical features of such heterostructures. In this work, we theoretically investigated the effect of the metal type on the nonadiabatic electron transfer (ET) at the metal-supported graphene using DFT calculations. We considered five metals Au, Ag, Pt, Cu, and Al on which graphene is physically adsorbed. It is shown that all metals catalyze the ET. The electrocatalytic effect increases in the following series Al < Au ≲ Ag ≈ Cu < Pt. The enhanced ET in the presence of the metal substrate is explained by the hybridization of metal and graphene states, due to which the coupling between the reactant in an electrolyte and metal is increased. Metal-dependent electrocatalytic effect is explained both by different densities of states at the Fermi level of the systems and by differences in the behaviour of the tails of hybridized wave functions in the electrolyte region. The shift of the Fermi level with respect to the Dirac point in graphene when charging at the metal/graphene/electrolyte interface does not affect the kinetics due to the small contribution of graphene states to the electron transfer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sergey V Pavlov
- Joint Institute for High Temperatures of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Izhorskaya 13/2, Moscow, 125412, Russian Federation.
| | - Yekaterina O Kozhevnikova
- Joint Institute for High Temperatures of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Izhorskaya 13/2, Moscow, 125412, Russian Federation.
| | - Vitaliy A Kislenko
- Center for Energy Science and Technology, Skolkovo Institute of Science and Technology, Nobel Str. 3, Moscow, 143026, Russian Federation.,Joint Institute for High Temperatures of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Izhorskaya 13/2, Moscow, 125412, Russian Federation.
| | - Sergey A Kislenko
- Joint Institute for High Temperatures of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Izhorskaya 13/2, Moscow, 125412, Russian Federation.
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Transport behavior of water and ions through positively charged nanopores. J Mol Liq 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.molliq.2022.119546] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
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Wehrhold M, Neubert TJ, Grosser T, Vondráček M, Honolka J, Balasubramanian K. A highly durable graphene monolayer electrode under long-term hydrogen evolution cycling. Chem Commun (Camb) 2022; 58:3823-3826. [PMID: 35234242 DOI: 10.1039/d2cc00220e] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Achieving long term stability of single graphene sheets towards repeated electrochemical hydrogen evolution reaction (HER) cycling has been challenging. Here, we show through appropriate electrode preparation that it is possible to obtain highly durable isolated graphene electrodes, which can survive several hundreds of HER cycles with virtually no damage to the sp2-carbon framework and persistently good electron transfer characteristics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michel Wehrhold
- School of Analytical Sciences Adlershof (SALSA), IRIS Adlershof & Department of Chemistry, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Germany.
| | - Tilmann J Neubert
- School of Analytical Sciences Adlershof (SALSA), IRIS Adlershof & Department of Chemistry, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Germany.
| | - Tobias Grosser
- School of Analytical Sciences Adlershof (SALSA), IRIS Adlershof & Department of Chemistry, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Germany.
| | - Martin Vondráček
- Institute of Physics, Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic, Na Slovance 2, Prague 18221, Czech Republic
| | - Jan Honolka
- Institute of Physics, Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic, Na Slovance 2, Prague 18221, Czech Republic
| | - Kannan Balasubramanian
- School of Analytical Sciences Adlershof (SALSA), IRIS Adlershof & Department of Chemistry, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Germany.
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Grosser T, Wehrhold M, Neubert TJ, Balasubramanian K. Graphene‐Mercury‐Graphene Sandwich Electrode for Electroanalysis. ChemElectroChem 2021. [DOI: 10.1002/celc.202101290] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Tobias Grosser
- Department of Chemistry School of Analytical Sciences Adlershof (SALSA) & IRIS Adlershof Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin Unter den Linden 6 10117 Berlin Germany
| | - Michel Wehrhold
- Department of Chemistry School of Analytical Sciences Adlershof (SALSA) & IRIS Adlershof Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin Unter den Linden 6 10117 Berlin Germany
| | - Tilmann J. Neubert
- Department of Chemistry School of Analytical Sciences Adlershof (SALSA) & IRIS Adlershof Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin Unter den Linden 6 10117 Berlin Germany
| | - Kannan Balasubramanian
- Department of Chemistry School of Analytical Sciences Adlershof (SALSA) & IRIS Adlershof Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin Unter den Linden 6 10117 Berlin Germany
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Neubert TJ, Wehrhold M, Kaya NS, Balasubramanian K. Faradaic effects in electrochemically gated graphene sensors in the presence of redox active molecules. NANOTECHNOLOGY 2020; 31:405201. [PMID: 32485689 DOI: 10.1088/1361-6528/ab98bc] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Field-effect transistors (FETs) based on graphene are promising devices for the direct sensing of a range of analytes in solution. We show here that the presence of redox active molecules in the analyte solution leads to the occurrence of heterogeneous electron transfer with graphene generating a Faradaic current (electron transfer) in a FET configuration resulting in shifts of the Dirac point. Such a shift occurs if the Faradaic current is significantly high, e.g. due to a large graphene area. Furthermore, the redox shift based on the Faradaic current, reminiscent of a doping-like effect, is found to be non-Nernstian and dependent on parameters known from electrode kinetics in potentiodynamic methods, such as the electrode area, the standard potential of the redox probes and the scan rate of the gate voltage modulation. This behavior clearly differentiates this effect from other transduction mechanisms based on electrostatic interactions or molecular charge transfer doping effects, which are usually behind a shift of the Dirac point. These observations suggest that large-area unmodified/pristine graphene in field-effect sensors behaves as a non-polarized electrode in liquid. Strategies for ensuring a polarized interface are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tilmann J Neubert
- School of Analytical Sciences Adlershof (SALSA), IRIS Adlershof and Department of Chemistry, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Berlin, Germany. Institut für Silizium-Photovoltaik, Helmholtz-Zentrum Berlin für Materialien und Energie GmbH, Berlin, Germany
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