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Pan X, Wang S, Zhou Z, Zhou L, Liu P, Li C, Wang W, Zhang C, Dong Y, Zhang Y. An efficient ptychography reconstruction strategy through fine-tuning of large pre-trained deep learning model. iScience 2023; 26:108420. [PMID: 38034346 PMCID: PMC10687283 DOI: 10.1016/j.isci.2023.108420] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/10/2023] [Revised: 08/24/2023] [Accepted: 11/06/2023] [Indexed: 12/02/2023] Open
Abstract
With pre-trained large models and their associated fine-tuning paradigms being constantly applied in deep learning, the performance of large models achieves a dramatic boost, mostly owing to the improvements on both data quantity and quality. Next-generation synchrotron light sources offer ultra-bright and highly coherent X-rays, which are becoming one of the largest data sources for scientific experiments. As one of the most data-intensive scanning-based imaging methodologies, ptychography produces an immense amount of data, making the adoption of large deep learning models possible. Here, we introduce and refine the architecture of a neural network model to improve the reconstruction performance, through fine-tuning large pre-trained model using a variety of datasets. The pre-trained model exhibits remarkable generalization capability, while the fine-tuning strategy enhances the reconstruction quality. We anticipate this work will contribute to the advancement of deep learning methods in ptychography, as well as in broader coherent diffraction imaging methodologies in future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xinyu Pan
- Beijing Synchrotron Radiation Facility, Institute of High Energy Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Shuo Wang
- Beijing Synchrotron Radiation Facility, Institute of High Energy Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Zhongzheng Zhou
- Beijing Synchrotron Radiation Facility, Institute of High Energy Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Liang Zhou
- Beijing Synchrotron Radiation Facility, Institute of High Energy Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Peng Liu
- Beijing Synchrotron Radiation Facility, Institute of High Energy Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Chun Li
- Beijing Synchrotron Radiation Facility, Institute of High Energy Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
- Spallation Neutron Source Science Center, Dongguan, Guangdong 523803, China
| | - Wenhui Wang
- Beijing Synchrotron Radiation Facility, Institute of High Energy Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
- Spallation Neutron Source Science Center, Dongguan, Guangdong 523803, China
| | - Chenglong Zhang
- Beijing Synchrotron Radiation Facility, Institute of High Energy Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Yuhui Dong
- Beijing Synchrotron Radiation Facility, Institute of High Energy Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Yi Zhang
- Beijing Synchrotron Radiation Facility, Institute of High Energy Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
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2
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Zhang J, Xiong B, Fu Z, Ning Y, Li D. Synergistic Effect of Hydroxyl and Carboxyl Groups on Promoting Nanoparticle Occlusion within Calcite. SMALL (WEINHEIM AN DER BERGSTRASSE, GERMANY) 2023; 19:e2207843. [PMID: 36717276 DOI: 10.1002/smll.202207843] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/15/2022] [Revised: 01/12/2023] [Indexed: 05/04/2023]
Abstract
Direct occlusion of guest nanoparticles into host crystals enables the straightforward preparation for various of nanocomposite materials with emerging properties. Therefore, it is highly desirable to elucidate the 'design rules' that govern efficient nanoparticle occlusion. Herein, a series of sterically-stabilized nanoparticles are rationally prepared, where the surface stabilizer chains of such nanoparticles are composed of either poly(methacrylic acid), or poly(glycerol monomethacrylate), or poly((2-hydroxy-3-(methacryloyloxy)propyl)serine). Systematic investigation reveals that hydroxyl groups and carboxyl groups play a synergistic role in driving nanoparticle incorporation into calcite crystals, where the hydroxyl groups enhance colloidal stability of the nanoparticles and the carboxyl groups provide binding sites for efficient occlusion. The generality of these findings is further validated by extending it to polymer-stabilized gold nanoparticles. This study demonstrates that precision synthesis of polymer stabilizers comprising of synergistic functional groups can significantly promote nanoparticle occlusion, thus enabling the efficient construction of organic-inorganic hybrid materials via nanoparticle occlusion strategy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jiahao Zhang
- College of Chemistry and Materials Science, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Functional Supramolecular Coordination Materials and Applications, Jinan University, Guangzhou, 510632, China
| | - Biao Xiong
- College of Chemistry and Materials Science, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Functional Supramolecular Coordination Materials and Applications, Jinan University, Guangzhou, 510632, China
| | - Ziyu Fu
- College of Chemistry and Materials Science, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Functional Supramolecular Coordination Materials and Applications, Jinan University, Guangzhou, 510632, China
| | - Yin Ning
- College of Chemistry and Materials Science, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Functional Supramolecular Coordination Materials and Applications, Jinan University, Guangzhou, 510632, China
| | - Dan Li
- College of Chemistry and Materials Science, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Functional Supramolecular Coordination Materials and Applications, Jinan University, Guangzhou, 510632, China
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3
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Weber S, Diaz A, Holler M, Schropp A, Lyubomirskiy M, Abel KL, Kahnt M, Jeromin A, Kulkarni S, Keller TF, Gläser R, Sheppard TL. Evolution of Hierarchically Porous Nickel Alumina Catalysts Studied by X-Ray Ptychography. ADVANCED SCIENCE (WEINHEIM, BADEN-WURTTEMBERG, GERMANY) 2022; 9:e2105432. [PMID: 35289133 PMCID: PMC8922122 DOI: 10.1002/advs.202105432] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/25/2021] [Revised: 12/22/2021] [Indexed: 05/14/2023]
Abstract
The synthesis of hierarchically porous materials usually requires complex experimental procedures, often based around extensive trial and error approaches. One common synthesis strategy is the sol-gel method, although the relation between synthesis parameters, material structure and function has not been widely explored. Here, in situ 2D hard X-ray ptychography (XRP) and 3D ptychographic X-ray computed tomography (PXCT) are applied to monitor the development of hierarchical porosity in Ni/Al2 O3 and Al2 O3 catalysts with connected meso- and macropore networks. In situ XRP allows to follow textural changes of a dried gel Ni/Al2 O3 sample as a function of temperature during calcination, activation and CO2 methanation reaction. Complementary PXCT studies on dried gel particles of Ni/Al2 O3 and Al2 O3 provide quantitative information on pore structure, size distribution, and shape with 3D spatial resolution approaching 50 nm, while identical particles are imaged ex situ before and after calcination. The X-ray imaging results are correlated with N2 -sorption, Hg porosimetry and He pycnometry pore characterization. Hard X-ray nanotomography is highlighted to derive fine structural details including tortuosity, branching nodes, and closed pores, which are relevant in understanding transport phenomena during chemical reactions. XRP and PXCT are enabling technologies to understand complex synthesis pathways of porous materials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sebastian Weber
- Institute for Chemical Technology and Polymer ChemistryKarlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT)Engesserstr. 20Karlsruhe76131Germany
- Institute of Catalysis Research and TechnologyKarlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT)Hermann‐von‐Helmholtz‐Platz 1Eggenstein‐Leopoldshafen76344Germany
| | - Ana Diaz
- Paul Scherrer InstitutVilligen PSI5232Switzerland
| | - Mirko Holler
- Paul Scherrer InstitutVilligen PSI5232Switzerland
| | - Andreas Schropp
- Deutsches Elektronen‐Synchrotron DESYNotkestrasse 85Hamburg22607Germany
| | | | - Ken L. Abel
- Institute of Chemical TechnologyUniversität LeipzigLinnéstraße 3Leipzig04103Germany
| | - Maik Kahnt
- MAX IV LaboratoryFotongatan 2Lund225 94Sweden
| | - Arno Jeromin
- Centre for X‐ray and Nano Science (CXNS)Deutsches Elektronen‐Synchrotron DESYNotkestrasse 85Hamburg22607Germany
| | - Satishkumar Kulkarni
- Centre for X‐ray and Nano Science (CXNS)Deutsches Elektronen‐Synchrotron DESYNotkestrasse 85Hamburg22607Germany
| | - Thomas F. Keller
- Centre for X‐ray and Nano Science (CXNS)Deutsches Elektronen‐Synchrotron DESYNotkestrasse 85Hamburg22607Germany
- Physics DepartmentUniversity of HamburgHamburg20355Germany
| | - Roger Gläser
- Institute of Chemical TechnologyUniversität LeipzigLinnéstraße 3Leipzig04103Germany
| | - Thomas L. Sheppard
- Institute for Chemical Technology and Polymer ChemistryKarlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT)Engesserstr. 20Karlsruhe76131Germany
- Institute of Catalysis Research and TechnologyKarlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT)Hermann‐von‐Helmholtz‐Platz 1Eggenstein‐Leopoldshafen76344Germany
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4
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Ning Y, Armes SP, Li D. Polymer-Inorganic Crystalline Nanocomposite Materials via Nanoparticle Occlusion. Macromol Rapid Commun 2022; 43:e2100793. [PMID: 35078274 DOI: 10.1002/marc.202100793] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/23/2021] [Revised: 01/20/2022] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
Efficient occlusion of guest nanoparticles into host single crystals opens up a straightforward and versatile way to construct functional crystalline nanocomposites. This new technique has attracted increasing research interest because it enables the composition, structure and property of the resulting nanocomposites to be well-controlled. In this review article, we aim to provide a comprehensive summary of nanoparticle occlusion within inorganic crystals. First, we summarize recently-developed strategies for the occlusion of various colloidal particles (e.g., diblock copolymer nanoparticles, polymer-modified inorganic nanoparticles, oil droplets, etc.) within host crystals (e.g., CaCO3 , ZnO or ZIF-8). Second, new results pertaining to spatially-controlled occlusion and the physical mechanism of nanoparticle occlusion are briefly discussed. Finally, we highlight the physicochemical properties and potential applications of various functional nanocomposite crystals constructed via nanoparticle occlusion and we also offer our perspective on the likely future for this research topic. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yin Ning
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Functional Supramolecular Coordination Materials and Applications, Jinan University, Guangzhou, 510632, People's Republic of China.,College of Chemistry and Materials Science, Jinan University, Guangzhou, 510632, People's Republic of China
| | - Steven P Armes
- Department of Chemistry, The University of Sheffield, Brook Hill, Sheffield, South Yorkshire, S3 7HF, UK
| | - Dan Li
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Functional Supramolecular Coordination Materials and Applications, Jinan University, Guangzhou, 510632, People's Republic of China.,College of Chemistry and Materials Science, Jinan University, Guangzhou, 510632, People's Republic of China
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5
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Ihli J, Schenk AS, Rosenfeldt S, Wakonig K, Holler M, Falini G, Pasquini L, Delacou E, Buckman J, Glen TS, Kress T, Tsai EHR, Reid DG, Duer MJ, Cusack M, Nudelman F. Mechanical adaptation of brachiopod shells via hydration-induced structural changes. Nat Commun 2021; 12:5383. [PMID: 34508091 PMCID: PMC8433230 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-021-25613-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/12/2021] [Accepted: 08/16/2021] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
The function-optimized properties of biominerals arise from the hierarchical organization of primary building blocks. Alteration of properties in response to environmental stresses generally involves time-intensive processes of resorption and reprecipitation of mineral in the underlying organic scaffold. Here, we report that the load-bearing shells of the brachiopod Discinisca tenuis are an exception to this process. These shells can dynamically modulate their mechanical properties in response to a change in environment, switching from hard and stiff when dry to malleable when hydrated within minutes. Using ptychographic X-ray tomography, electron microscopy and spectroscopy, we describe their hierarchical structure and composition as a function of hydration to understand the structural motifs that generate this adaptability. Key is a complementary set of structural modifications, starting with the swelling of an organic matrix on the micron level via nanocrystal reorganization and ending in an intercalation process on the molecular level in response to hydration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Johannes Ihli
- Photon Science Division, Paul Scherrer Institut, Villigen PSI, Switzerland.
| | - Anna S Schenk
- Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Biology, Chemistry & Earth Sciences, University of Bayreuth, and Bavarian Polymer Institute, Universitaetsstrasse 30, Bayreuth, Germany
| | - Sabine Rosenfeldt
- Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Biology, Chemistry & Earth Sciences, University of Bayreuth, and Bavarian Polymer Institute, Universitaetsstrasse 30, Bayreuth, Germany
| | - Klaus Wakonig
- Photon Science Division, Paul Scherrer Institut, Villigen PSI, Switzerland
- ETH and University of Zürich, Institute for Biomedical Engineering, 8093, Zürich, Switzerland
| | - Mirko Holler
- Photon Science Division, Paul Scherrer Institut, Villigen PSI, Switzerland
| | - Giuseppe Falini
- Dipartimento di Chimica "Giacomo Ciamician", Alma Mater Studiorum Università di Bologna, via F. Selmi 2, Bologna, Italy
| | - Luca Pasquini
- Department of Physics and Astronomy, University of Bologna, viale Berti-Pichat 6/2, Bologna, Italy
| | - Eugénia Delacou
- School of Chemistry, the University of Edinburgh, Joseph Black Building, Edinburgh, UK
| | - Jim Buckman
- Institute of GeoEnergy Engineering, School of Energy, Geoscience, Infrastructure and Society, Heriot-Watt University, Riccarton, Edinburgh, UK
| | - Thomas S Glen
- School of Physics and Astronomy, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK
| | - Thomas Kress
- Department of Chemistry, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
| | - Esther H R Tsai
- Center for Functional Nanomaterials, Brookhaven National Laboratory, Upton, NY, USA
| | - David G Reid
- Department of Chemistry, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
| | - Melinda J Duer
- Department of Chemistry, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
| | - Maggie Cusack
- Munster Technological University, Bishopstown, Cork, T12 P928 & Tralee, Kerry, Cork, Ireland
| | - Fabio Nudelman
- School of Chemistry, the University of Edinburgh, Joseph Black Building, Edinburgh, UK.
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6
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Ferreira Sanchez D, Ihli J, Zhang D, Rohrbach T, Zimmermann P, Lee J, Borca CN, Böhlen N, Grolimund D, Bokhoven JA, Ranocchiari M. Spatio‐Chemical Heterogeneity of Defect‐Engineered Metal–Organic Framework Crystals Revealed by Full‐Field Tomographic X‐ray Absorption Spectroscopy. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2021. [DOI: 10.1002/ange.202013422] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Affiliation(s)
| | - Johannes Ihli
- Swiss Light Source Paul Scherrer Institut (PSI) 5232 Villigen Switzerland
| | - Damin Zhang
- Laboratory for Catalysis and Sustainable Chemistry Paul Scherrer Institute 5232 Villigen PSI Switzerland
- NanoElectroCatalysis Group Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry University of Bern Bern Switzerland
| | - Thomas Rohrbach
- Laboratory for Catalysis and Sustainable Chemistry Paul Scherrer Institute 5232 Villigen PSI Switzerland
| | - Patric Zimmermann
- Laboratory for Catalysis and Sustainable Chemistry Paul Scherrer Institute 5232 Villigen PSI Switzerland
| | - Jinhee Lee
- Laboratory for Catalysis and Sustainable Chemistry Paul Scherrer Institute 5232 Villigen PSI Switzerland
| | - Camelia N. Borca
- Swiss Light Source Paul Scherrer Institut (PSI) 5232 Villigen Switzerland
| | - Natascha Böhlen
- Laboratory for Catalysis and Sustainable Chemistry Paul Scherrer Institute 5232 Villigen PSI Switzerland
| | - Daniel Grolimund
- Swiss Light Source Paul Scherrer Institut (PSI) 5232 Villigen Switzerland
| | - Jeroen A. Bokhoven
- Laboratory for Catalysis and Sustainable Chemistry Paul Scherrer Institute 5232 Villigen PSI Switzerland
- Institute for Chemical and Bioengineering ETH Zurich 8093 Zürich Switzerland
| | - Marco Ranocchiari
- Laboratory for Catalysis and Sustainable Chemistry Paul Scherrer Institute 5232 Villigen PSI Switzerland
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7
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Ferreira Sanchez D, Ihli J, Zhang D, Rohrbach T, Zimmermann P, Lee J, Borca CN, Böhlen N, Grolimund D, van Bokhoven JA, Ranocchiari M. Spatio-Chemical Heterogeneity of Defect-Engineered Metal-Organic Framework Crystals Revealed by Full-Field Tomographic X-ray Absorption Spectroscopy. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2021; 60:10032-10039. [PMID: 33523530 DOI: 10.1002/anie.202013422] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/05/2020] [Revised: 01/28/2021] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Abstract
The introduction of structural defects in metal-organic frameworks (MOFs), often achieved through the fractional use of defective linkers, is emerging as a means to refine the properties of existing MOFs. These linkers, missing coordination fragments, create unsaturated framework nodes that may alter the properties of the MOF. A property-targeted utilization of this approach demands an understanding of the structure of the defect-engineered MOF. We demonstrate that full-field X-ray absorption near-edge structure computed tomography can help to improve our understanding. This was demonstrated by visualizing the chemical heterogeneity found in defect-engineered HKUST-1 MOF crystals. A non-uniform incorporation and zonation of the defective linker was discovered, leading to the presence of clusters of a second coordination polymer within HKUST-1. The former is suggested to be responsible, in part, for altered MOF properties; thereby, advocating for a spatio-chemically resolved characterization of MOFs.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Johannes Ihli
- Swiss Light Source, Paul Scherrer Institut (PSI), 5232, Villigen, Switzerland
| | - Damin Zhang
- Laboratory for Catalysis and Sustainable Chemistry, Paul Scherrer Institute, 5232, Villigen PSI, Switzerland.,NanoElectroCatalysis Group, Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
| | - Thomas Rohrbach
- Laboratory for Catalysis and Sustainable Chemistry, Paul Scherrer Institute, 5232, Villigen PSI, Switzerland
| | - Patric Zimmermann
- Laboratory for Catalysis and Sustainable Chemistry, Paul Scherrer Institute, 5232, Villigen PSI, Switzerland
| | - Jinhee Lee
- Laboratory for Catalysis and Sustainable Chemistry, Paul Scherrer Institute, 5232, Villigen PSI, Switzerland
| | - Camelia N Borca
- Swiss Light Source, Paul Scherrer Institut (PSI), 5232, Villigen, Switzerland
| | - Natascha Böhlen
- Laboratory for Catalysis and Sustainable Chemistry, Paul Scherrer Institute, 5232, Villigen PSI, Switzerland
| | - Daniel Grolimund
- Swiss Light Source, Paul Scherrer Institut (PSI), 5232, Villigen, Switzerland
| | - Jeroen A van Bokhoven
- Laboratory for Catalysis and Sustainable Chemistry, Paul Scherrer Institute, 5232, Villigen PSI, Switzerland.,Institute for Chemical and Bioengineering, ETH Zurich, 8093, Zürich, Switzerland
| | - Marco Ranocchiari
- Laboratory for Catalysis and Sustainable Chemistry, Paul Scherrer Institute, 5232, Villigen PSI, Switzerland
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8
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Gindele MB, Steingrube LV, Gebauer D. Generality of liquid precursor phases in gas diffusion-based calcium carbonate synthesis. CrystEngComm 2021. [DOI: 10.1039/d1ce00225b] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
We confirm the presence of liquid calcium carbonate precursor species in absence of additives in gas diffusion systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maxim B. Gindele
- Institute of Inorganic Chemistry, Leibniz University Hannover, Callinstraße 9, D 30167 Hannover, Germany
| | - Luisa Vanessa Steingrube
- Institute of Inorganic Chemistry, Leibniz University Hannover, Callinstraße 9, D 30167 Hannover, Germany
| | - Denis Gebauer
- Institute of Inorganic Chemistry, Leibniz University Hannover, Callinstraße 9, D 30167 Hannover, Germany
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9
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Ning Y, Armes SP. Efficient Occlusion of Nanoparticles within Inorganic Single Crystals. Acc Chem Res 2020; 53:1176-1186. [PMID: 32421304 DOI: 10.1021/acs.accounts.0c00103] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
In principle, the incorporation of guest nanoparticles within host crystals should provide a straightforward and versatile route to a wide range of nanocomposite materials. However, crystallization normally involves expelling impurities, so nanoparticle occlusion is both counter-intuitive and technically challenging. Clearly, the nanoparticles should have a strong interaction with the growing crystalline lattice, but quantifying such an affinity has been challenging; the basic principles that govern efficient nanoparticle occlusion within inorganic single crystals are rather poorly understood. In the past few years, we have focused on the elucidation of robust design rules for such systems; our progress is summarized in this article.Polymerization-induced self-assembly (PISA) is widely recognized as a powerful platform technology for the preparation of a broad range of model organic nanoparticles. Herein, PISA was exploited to prepare sterically stabilized diblock copolymer nano-objects (e.g., spheres, worms, or vesicles) of varying size using steric stabilizers of well-defined chain length, variable anionic charge density, tunable surface density, and adjustable chemical functionality (e.g., carboxylic acid, phosphate, sulfate or sulfonate groups). Thus, we were able to systematically investigate how such structural parameters influence nanoparticle occlusion. Given its commercial importance for many industrial sectors, calcium carbonate was selected as the model host crystal for nanoparticle occlusion studies. Perhaps surprisingly, the extent of nanoparticle occlusion is not particularly sensitive to nanoparticle size or morphology. However, the steric stabilizer chain length can play a key role: relatively short chains lead to surface-confined occlusion, while sufficiently long chains enable uniform nanoparticle occlusion to be achieved throughout the crystal lattice (albeit sometimes inducing a significant change in crystal morphology). Optimizing the anionic charge density and surface density of the stabilizer chains is required to maximize the extent of nanoparticle occlusion, while steric stabilizer chains comprising anionic carboxylate groups led to greater occlusion compared to those composed of phosphate, sulfate, or sulfonate groups when examining a model vesicle system.Subsequently, our occlusion studies were extended to include functional hybrid nanocomposite crystals. For example, the spatially controlled occlusion of poly(glycerol monomethacrylate)-stabilized gold nanoparticles was achieved within semiconductive ZnO crystals by either controlling the nanoparticle concentration or by delaying their addition to the reaction mixture. Moreover, oil droplets of up to 500 nm have been incorporated into calcite crystals at up to 11% by mass, despite the large mismatch in surface energy between the hydrophobic oil droplets and the ionic crystal lattice. We have also explored a "Trojan horse" strategy, whereby cargos comprising nanoparticles or soluble dye molecules are first encapsulated within anionic block copolymer vesicles prior to their incorporation within calcite crystals. This approach offers a generic and efficient strategy for the occlusion of many types of guest species into single crystals. In summary, we have established important guidelines for efficient nanoparticle occlusion within crystals, which opens up new avenues for the synthesis of next-generation hybrid materials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yin Ning
- Department of Chemistry, University of Sheffield, Brook Hill, Sheffield, South Yorkshire S3 7HF, U.K
| | - Steven P. Armes
- Department of Chemistry, University of Sheffield, Brook Hill, Sheffield, South Yorkshire S3 7HF, U.K
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