Dual drug-paired polyprodrug nanotheranostics reverse multidrug resistant cancers via mild photothermal-cocktail chemotherapy

Mild hyperthermia enhanced synergistic uric acid degradation and multiple ROS elimination for an effective acute gout therapy

BACKGROUND

Acute gouty is caused by the excessive accumulation of Monosodium Urate (MSU) crystals within various parts of the body, which leads to a deterioration of the local microenvironment. This degradation is marked by elevated levels of uric acid (UA), increased reactive oxygen species (ROS) production, hypoxic conditions, an upsurge in pro-inflammatory mediators, and mitochondrial dysfunction.

RESULTS

In this study, we developed a multifunctional nanoparticle of polydopamine-platinum (PDA@Pt) to combat acute gout by leveraging mild hyperthermia to synergistically enhance UA degradation and anti-inflammatory effect. Herein, PDA acts as a foundational template that facilitates the growth of a Pt shell on the surface of its nanospheres, leading to the formation of the PDA@Pt nanomedicine. Within this therapeutic agent, the Pt nanoparticle catalyzes the decomposition of UA and actively breaks down endogenous hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) to produce O2, which helps to alleviate hypoxic conditions. Concurrently, the PDA component possesses exceptional capacity for ROS scavenging. Most significantly, Both PDA and Pt shell exhibit absorption in the Near-Infrared-II (NIR-II) region, which not only endow PDA@Pt with superior photothermal conversion efficiency for effective photothermal therapy (PTT) but also substantially enhances the nanomedicine's capacity for UA degradation, O2 production and ROS scavenging enzymatic activities. This photothermally-enhanced approach effectively facilitates the repair of mitochondrial damage and downregulates the NF-κB signaling pathway to inhibit the expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines.

CONCLUSIONS

The multifunctional nanomedicine PDA@Pt exhibits exceptional efficacy in UA reduction and anti-inflammatory effects, presenting a promising potential therapeutic strategy for the management of acute gout.

Dog-bone shaped gold nanoparticle-mediated chemo-photothermal therapy impairs the powerhouse to trigger apoptosis in cancer cells

The mitochondrion has emerged as one of the uncommon targets in cancer therapeutics due to its involvement in cancer generation and progression. Consequently, nanoplatform mediated delivery of anti-cancer drugs into the mitochondria of cancer tissues demonstrated immense potential in cancer treatment. In the last couple of decades, gold nanoparticles have gained incredible attention in biomedical applications due to their easy synthesis, size-shape tenability, optical properties and outstanding photothermal ability. However, application of gold nanoparticles to target mitochondria to induce the chemo-photothermal effect in cancer has remained in its infancy. To address this, herein we have engineered dog-bone shaped gold nanoparticles (Mito-AuDB-NPs) comprising cisplatin and 10-hydroxycamptothecin as chemotherapeutic drugs along with the triphenylphosphonium (TPP) cation for mitochondria homing. Mito-AuDB-NPs exhibited a remarkable increase in temperature till 56 °C upon 18 min irradiation with 740 nm NIR LED light with a power density of 0.9 W cm-2. These Mito-AuDB-NPs successfully homed into the mitochondria of HeLa cervical cancer cells within 1 h and induced mitochondrial outer membrane permeabilization (MOMP) under the chemo-photothermal effect leading to the generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS). This Mito-AuDB-NP-mediated mitochondrial damage triggered programmed cell death (apoptosis) by decreasing the expression of anti-apoptotic Bcl-2/Bcl-xl and increasing the expression of pro-apoptotic BAX followed by caspase-3 cleavage towards extraordinary HeLa cell killing in a synergistic manner without showing toxicity towards non-cancerous RPE-1 human epithelial retinal pigment cells. We anticipate that this dog-bone shaped gold nanoparticle-mediated chemo-photothermal impairment of mitochondria in the cancer cells can open a new direction towards organelle targeted cancer therapy.

Design and synthesis of cancer-cell-membrane-camouflaged hemoporfin-Cu9S8 nanoagents for homotypic tumor-targeted photothermal-sonodynamic therapy

Multimodal therapies have aroused great interest in tumor therapy due to their highly effective antitumor effect. However, immune clearance limits the practical application of nanoagents-based multimodal therapies. To solve this problem, we have designed hemoporfin-Cu₉S₈ hollow nanospheres camouflaged with the CT26 cell membrane (CCM) as a model of multifunctional agents, achieving homologous-targeted synergistic photothermal therapy (PTT) and sonodynamic therapy (SDT). Hollow Cu₉S₈ as photothermal agents and carriers have been obtained through sulfurizing cuprous oxide (Cu₂O) nanoparticles through "Kirkendall effect", and they exhibit hollow nanospheres structure with a size of ∼200 nm. Then, Cu₉S₈ nanospheres could be used to load with hemoporfin sonosensitizers, and then hemoporfin-Cu₉S₈ nanospheres (abbreviated as H-Cu₉S₈) can be further surface-camouflaged with CCM. H-Cu₉S₈@CCM nanospheres exhibit a broad photoabsorption in the range of 700-1100 nm and high photothermal conversion efficiency of 39.8% under 1064 nm laser irradiation for subsequent PTT. In addition, under the excitation of ultrasound, the loaded hemoporfin could generate ¹O₂ for subsequent SDT. Especially, H-Cu₉S₈@CCM NPs are featured with biocompatibility and homologous targeting capacity. When intravenously (i.v.) injected into mice, H-Cu₉S₈@CCM NPs display a higher blood circulation half-life (3.17 h, 6.47 times) and tumor accumulation amount (18.75% ID/g, 1.94 times), compared to H-Cu₉S₈ NPs (0.49 h, 9.68% ID/g) without CCM. In addition, upon 1064 nm laser and ultrasound irradiation, H-Cu₉S₈@CCM NPs can inhibit tumor growth more efficiently due to high accumulation efficiency and synergistic PTT-SDT functions. Therefore, the present study provides some insight into the design of multifunctional efficient agents for homotypic tumor-targeted therapy.

Research Progress of Nanomedicine-Based Mild Photothermal Therapy in Tumor

With the booming development of nanomedicine, mild photothermal therapy (mPTT, 42-45°C) has exhibited promising potential in tumor therapy. Compared with traditional PTT (>50°C), mPTT has less side effects and better biological effects conducive to tumor treatment, such as loosening the dense structure in tumor tissues, enhancing blood perfusion, and improving the immunosuppressive microenvironment. However, such a relatively low temperature cannot allow mPTT to completely eradicate tumors, and therefore, substantial efforts have been conducted to optimize the application of mPTT in tumor therapy. This review extensively summarizes the latest advances of mPTT, including two sections: (1) taking mPTT as a leading role to maximize its effect by blocking the cell defense mechanisms, and (2) regarding mPTT as a supporting role to assist other therapies to achieve synergistic antitumor curative effect. Meanwhile, the special characteristics and imaging capabilities of nanoplatforms applied in various therapies are discussed. At last, this paper puts forward the bottlenecks and challenges in the current research path of mPTT, and possible solutions and research directions in future are proposed correspondingly.

A Titanium Nitride Nanozyme for pH-Responsive and Irradiation-Enhanced Cascade-Catalytic Tumor Therapy

Nanozyme-based catalytic tumor therapy is an emerging therapeutic method with high reactivity in response to tumor microenvironments (TMEs). To overcome the current limitations of deficient catalytic activity of nanozymes, we studied the contributing factors of enzymatic activity based on non-metallic-atom doping and irradiation. Nitrogen doping significantly enhanced the peroxidase activity of Ti-based nanozymes, which was shown experimentally and theoretically. Based on the excellent NIR-adsorption-induced surface plasmon resonance and photothermal effect, the enzymatic activity of TiN nanoparticles (NPs) was further improved under NIR laser irradiation. Hence, an acidic TME-responsive and irradiation-mediated cascade nanocatalyst (TLGp) is presented by using TiN-NP-encapsulated liposomes linked with pH-responsive PEG-modified glucose oxidase (GOx). The integration of pH-responsive GOx-mediated H₂ O₂ self-supply, nitrogen-doping, and irradiation-enhanced enzymatic activity of TiN NPs and mild-photothermal therapy enables an effective tumor inhibition by TLGp with minimal side effects in vivo.

Low-Temperature Photothermal Therapy: Strategies and Applications

Although photothermal therapy (PTT) with the assistance of nanotechnology has been considered as an indispensable strategy in the biomedical field, it still encounters some severe problems that need to be solved. Excessive heat can induce treated cells to develop thermal resistance, and thus, the efficacy of PTT may be dramatically decreased. In the meantime, the uncontrollable diffusion of heat can pose a threat to the surrounding healthy tissues. Recently, low-temperature PTT (also known as mild PTT or mild-temperature PTT) has demonstrated its remarkable capacity of conquering these obstacles and has shown excellent performance in bacterial elimination, wound healing, and cancer treatments. Herein, we summarize the recently proposed strategies for achieving low-temperature PTT based on nanomaterials and introduce the synthesis, characteristics, and applications of these nanoplatforms. Additionally, the combination of PTT and other therapeutic modalities for defeating cancers and the synergistic cancer therapeutic effect of the combined treatments are discussed. Finally, the current limitations and future directions are proposed for inspiring more researchers to make contributions to promoting low-temperature PTT toward more successful preclinical and clinical disease treatments.

Nanomedicines for combating multidrug resistance of cancer

Chemotherapy typically involves the use of specific chemodrugs to inhibit the proliferation of cancer cells, but the frequent emergence of a variety of multidrug-resistant cancer cells poses a tremendous threat to our combat against cancer. The fundamental causes of multidrug resistance (MDR) have been studied for decades, and can be generally classified into two types: one is associated with the activation of diverse drug efflux pumps, which are responsible for translocating intracellular drug molecules out of the cells; the other is linked with some non-efflux pump-related mechanisms, such as antiapoptotic defense, enhanced DNA repair ability, and powerful antioxidant systems. To overcome MDR, intense efforts have been made to develop synergistic therapeutic strategies by introducing MDR inhibitors or combining chemotherapy with other therapeutic modalities, such as phototherapy, gene therapy, and gas therapy, in the hope that the drug-resistant cells can be sensitized toward chemotherapeutics. In particular, nanotechnology-based drug delivery platforms have shown the potential to integrate multiple therapeutic agents into one system. In this review, the focus was on the recent development of nanostrategies aiming to enhance the efficiency of chemotherapy and overcome the MDR of cancer in a synergistic manner. Different combinatorial strategies are introduced in detail and the advantages as well as underlying mechanisms of why these strategies can counteract MDR are discussed. This review is expected to shed new light on the design of advanced nanomedicines from the angle of materials and to deepen our understanding of MDR for the development of more effective anticancer strategies. This article is categorized under: Nanotechnology Approaches to Biology > Nanoscale Systems in Biology Therapeutic Approaches and Drug Discovery > Nanomedicine for Oncologic Disease.

Polymeric photothermal agents for cancer therapy: recent progress and clinical potential

Over the past decades, near infrared light (NIR)-sensitive photothermal agents (PTAs) that can efficiently absorb light and generate heat have been investigated worldwide for cancer photothermal therapy (PTT) and the combination treatments, which have some peculiar advantages including spatiotemporal targeting, the ability-to-reverse multidrug resistance, the immunity-stimulating function, and the synergistic effect in combination treatments. In this review, we first focus on emerging melanin-like polymers and coordination polyphenol polymer-based PTAs that hold transition potential because of their facile synthesis and good biocompatibility/biodegradability. We briefly introduce polymeric PTAs for emerging NIR-II (1000-1700 nm) PTT in deep tumors to overcome shallow penetration depth and threshold irradiation intensity of NIR-I (700-900 nm). Then we discuss polymeric PTAs for combination PTT treatments with photodynamic therapy (PDT), ferroptosis therapy (ferrotherapy), and immunotherapy, which are intensively studied for achieving anticancer synergistic effects. Finally, we discuss those polymeric PTAs for reversing cancer multidrug resistance and for mild/low-temperature PTT (43 °C ≤ T < 50 °C) in contrast to conventional high-temperature PTT (>50 °C). The polymeric PTA-based PTT and the combination treatments are still being developed in the early stage and need much more effort before potential clinical transitions and applications.

Recent Advancements in Stimuli Responsive Drug Delivery Platforms for Active and Passive Cancer Targeting

The tumor-specific targeting of chemotherapeutic agents for specific necrosis of cancer cells without affecting the normal cells poses a great challenge for researchers and scientists. Though extensive research has been carried out to investigate chemotherapy-based targeted drug delivery, the identification of the most promising strategy capable of bypassing non-specific cytotoxicity is still a major concern. Recent advancements in the arena of onco-targeted therapies have enabled safe and effective tumor-specific localization through stimuli-responsive drug delivery systems. Owing to their promising characteristic features, stimuli-responsive drug delivery platforms have revolutionized the chemotherapy-based treatments with added benefits of enhanced bioavailability and selective cytotoxicity of cancer cells compared to the conventional modalities. The insensitivity of stimuli-responsive drug delivery platforms when exposed to normal cells prevents the release of cytotoxic drugs into the normal cells and therefore alleviates the off-target events associated with chemotherapy. Contrastingly, they showed amplified sensitivity and triggered release of chemotherapeutic payload when internalized into the tumor microenvironment causing maximum cytotoxic responses and the induction of cancer cell necrosis. This review focuses on the physical stimuli-responsive drug delivery systems and chemical stimuli-responsive drug delivery systems for triggered cancer chemotherapy through active and/or passive targeting. Moreover, the review also provided a brief insight into the molecular dynamic simulations associated with stimuli-based tumor targeting.

Cathepsin B-responsive and gadolinium-labeled branched glycopolymer-PTX conjugate-derived nanotheranostics for cancer treatment

Multi-modal therapeutics are emerging for simultaneous diagnosis and treatment of cancer. Polymeric carriers are often employed for loading multiple drugs due to their versatility and controlled release of these drugs in response to a tumor specific microenvironment. A theranostic nanomedicine was designed and prepared by complexing a small gadolinium chelate, conjugating a chemotherapeutic drug PTX through a cathepsin B-responsive linker and covalently bonding a fluorescent probe pheophorbide a (Ppa) with a branched glycopolymer. The branched prodrug-based nanosystem was degradable in the tumor microenvironment with overexpressed cathepsin B, and PTX was simultaneously released to exert its therapeutic effect. The theranostic nanomedicine, branched glycopolymer-PTX-DOTA-Gd, had an extended circulation time, enhanced accumulation in tumors, and excellent biocompatibility with significantly reduced gadolinium ion (Gd³⁺) retention after 96 h post-injection. Enhanced imaging contrast up to 24 h post-injection and excellent antitumor efficacy with a tumor inhibition rate more than 90% were achieved from glycopolymer-PTX-DOTA-Gd without obvious systematic toxicity. This branched polymeric prodrug-based nanomedicine is very promising for safe and effective diagnosis and treatment of cancer.

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A cathepsin B-responsive theranostic nanomedicine (glycopolymer-PTX-DOTA-Gd) based on a branched glycopolymer was prepared.

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Glycopolymer-PTX-DOTA-Gd can be specifically degradated and release drug at tumor enviornment.

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Glycopolymer-PTX-DOTA-Gd enhance the contrast of magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) at tumor sites.

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The nanomedicine have good biocompatibility, excellent tumor targeting and anti-tumor efficacy.

A mini-review of X-ray photodynamic therapy (XPDT) nonoagent constituents' safety and relevant design considerations

Conventional photodynamic therapy (PDT) has proved effective in the management of primary tumors and individual metastases. However, most cancer mortality arises from wide-spread multiple metastases. The latter has thus become the principal target in oncology, and X-ray induced photodynamic therapy (XPDT or PDTX) offers a great solution for adapting the PDT principle to deep tumors and scattered metastases. Developing agents capable of being excited by X-rays and emitting visible light to excite photosensitizers is based on challenging physical and chemical technologies, but there are fundamental biological limitations that are to be accounted for as well. In the present review, we have established eight major groups of safety determinants of NPs encompassing 22 parameters of clinical applicability of XPDT nanoparticulate formulations. Most, if not all, of these parameters can be accounted for and optimized during the design and development of novel XPDT nanoparticles.

Carbon nanotube embedded cyclodextrin polymer derived injectable nanocarrier: A multiple faceted platform for stimulation of multi-drug resistance reversal

A combination of cocktail chemotherapy (CCT), photothermal therapy (PTT) and inhibition of angiogenesis was investigated as an effective approach to combat major challenges of multidrug resistance and non-targeted drug delivery encountered in conventional cancer therapy. An injectable nanocarrier was developed through functionalization of carbon nanotubes (CNTs) with rationally modified carbohydrate (β-Cyclodextrin-CD) derived pH and thermo responsive polymer. Embedding CNT to CD polymer offers a nanocarrier which effectively demonstrated CCT, high NIR triggered photothermal efficiency, anti-angiogenic potential for selective tumor homing as well as enhanced multi-drug resistance (MDR) reversal with minimal toxic effects on normal cells. The simultaneously loading with curcumin and doxorubicin hydrochloride exhibited synergistic effect for triggering antitumor effect in vitro and demonstrated down regulation of growth factors associated with angiogenesis ex-ovo. In-vivo studies ascertained that the nanocarrier synthesized with the rational for MDR reversal can lead to enhanced cancer cell death via multiple approaches.

Lysine demethylase KDM3A regulates nanophotonic hyperthermia resistance generated by 2D silicene in breast cancer

Breast cancer (BC) is the most common malignant disease affecting women's health worldwide. The benefits from conventional therapeutic modalities are severely limited. An increasing number of promising photothermal materials have been recently developed and introduced into the therapeutic regimens of BC, but the underlying biological mechanism remains unclear. Silicon-based materials have enjoyed many popularities in the biomedical field owing to their desirable biocompatibility, biodegradability and versatility. Herein, we introduced two dimensional (2D) silicene nanosheets (SNSs) into the BC treatment and achieved profound photothermal-ablation efficacy. Importantly, this work reveals the underlying biological mechanism and regulation factors of photonic hyperthermia in BC. The RNA sequencing and immunoblot demonstrated that photothermia enhanced apoptosis in BC by activating caspase 3 and caspase 7. Importantly, knockdown of lysine demethylase KDM3A sensitized BC to photothermia epigenetically. It has been revealed that KDM3A could erase p53K372me1 and suppress the anti-cancer functions of p53, leading to the downregulation of pro-apoptotic proteins-PUMA and NOXA verified by Co-IP and ChIP-qPCR assays. Therefore, our results not only import near infrared light (NIR) induced photothermal ablation generated by SNSs-BSA into the BC treatment, but also clarify the underlying mechanism and regulation factors for further photothermal performance optimization and clinical translation.

Rational design and latest advances of codelivery systems for cancer therapy

Current treatments have limited effectiveness in treating tumors. The combination of multiple drugs or treatment strategies is widely studied to improve therapeutic effect and reduce adverse effects of cancer therapy. The codelivery system is the key to realize combined therapies. It is necessary to design and construct different codelivery systems in accordance with the variable structures and properties of cargoes and vectors. This review presented the typical design considerations about codelivery vectors for cancer therapy and described the current state of codelivery systems from two aspects: different types of vectors and collaborative treatment strategies. The commonly used loading methods of cargoes into the vectors, including physical and chemical processes, are discussed in detail. Finally, we outline the challenges and perspectives about the improvement of codelivery systems.