Progress in construction and release of natural polysaccharide-platinum nanomedicines: A review

Natural polysaccharides are natural biomaterials that have become candidate materials for nano-drug delivery systems due to their excellent biodegradability and biocompatibility. Platinum (Pt) drugs have been widely used in the clinical therapy for various solid tumors. However, their extensive systemic toxicity and the drug resistance acquired by cancer cells limit the applications of platinum drugs. Modern nanobiotechnology provides the possibility for targeted delivery of platinum drugs to the tumor site, thereby minimizing toxicity and optimizing the efficacies of the drugs. In recent years, numerous natural polysaccharide-platinum nanomedicine delivery carriers have been developed, such as nanomicelles, nanospheres, nanogels, etc. Herein, we provide an overview on the construction and drug release of natural polysaccharide-Pt nanomedicines in recent years. Current challenges and future prospectives in this field are also put forward. In general, combining with irradiation and tumor microenvironment provides a significant research direction for the construction of natural polysaccharide-platinum nanomedicines and the release of responsive drugs in the future.

The progress of research on the application of redox nanomaterials in disease therapy

Redox imbalance can trigger cell dysfunction and damage and plays a vital role in the origin and progression of many diseases. Maintaining the balance between oxidants and antioxidants in vivo is a complicated and arduous task, leading to ongoing research into the construction of redox nanomaterials. Nanodrug platforms with redox characteristics can not only reduce the adverse effects of oxidative stress on tissues by removing excess oxidants from the body but also have multienzyme-like activity, which can play a cytotoxic role in tumor tissues through the catalytic oxidation of their substrates to produce harmful reactive oxygen species such as hydroxyl radicals. In this review, various redox nanomaterials currently used in disease therapy are discussed, emphasizing the treatment methods and their applications in tumors and other human tissues. Finally, the limitations of the current clinical application of redox nanomaterials are considered.

Dual-Drug Conjugated Glyco-Nanoassemblies for Tumor-Triggered Targeting and Synergistic Cancer Therapy

Drug-conjugated nanoassemblies potentiate the efficiency of anticancer drugs through the advantages of high drug-loading capacity and passive/active targeting ability in cancer therapy. This study describes the synthesis of gemcitabine (Gem) and cisplatin (cisPt) dual-drug-functionalized glyco-nanoassemblies (GNs) for anticancer drug delivery systems. It also investigates the pH-triggered drug delivery of the conventional anticancer drug cisPt. A Gem-functionalized well-defined glycoblock copolymer backbone (P(iprFruMA-b-MAc)-Gem), which consists of fructose and methacrylic acid segments, was synthesized via a reversible addition-fragmentation chain transfer (RAFT) polymerization method. Following the hydrolysis of the protecting groups on the backbone copolymer, cisPt functionalization of P(FruMA-b-MAc)-Gem in aqueous media was carried out during the transformation of glycoblock polymers into self-assembled spherical glyco-nanoassemblies (GN3). Monodrug-functionalized glyco-nanoassemblies were also prepared either with Gem (GN1) or cisPt (GN2) to compare the synergetic effect of dual-drug conjugated glyco-nanoassemblies (GN3). The sizes of glyco-nanoassemblies GN1, GN2, and GN3 were found as 5.76 ± 0.64, 59.80 ± 0.13, and 53.80 ± 3.90 nm and dispersity (Đ) values as 0.476, 0.292, and 0.311 by dynamic light scattering (DLS) measurement, respectively. The in vitro studies revealed that the drug-free glyco-nanoassemblies are biocompatible at concentrations higher than 296 μg/mL. The drug-conjugated glyco-nanoassemblies (GN1 and GN2) exhibited in vitro cytotoxicity against human breast cancer cell lines of MDA-MB-231 comparable to free Gem and cisPt, illustrating an efficient drug release into the tumor environment. Additionally, GNs exhibited higher selectivity and preferential cellular internalization in MDA-MB-231 when compared to healthy cell lines of CCD-1079Sk. These dual-drug conjugated GNs can effectively enhance the killing of cancer cells and increase synergistic chemotherapy.

Platinum nanoplatforms: classic catalysts claiming a prominent role in cancer therapy

Platinum nanoparticles (Pt NPs) have a well-established role as a classic heterogeneous catalyst. Also, Pt has traditionally been employed as a component of organometallic drug formulations for chemotherapy. However, a new role in cancer therapy is emerging thanks to its outstanding catalytic properties, enabling novel approaches that are surveyed in this review. Herein, we critically discuss results already obtained and attempt to ascertain future perspectives for Pt NPs as catalysts able to modify key processes taking place in the tumour microenvironment (TME). In addition, we explore relevant parameters affecting the cytotoxicity, biodistribution and clearance of Pt nanosystems. We also analyze pros and cons in terms of biocompatibility and potential synergies that emerge from combining the catalytic capabilities of Pt with other agents such as co-catalysts, external energy sources (near-infrared light, X-ray, electric currents) and conventional therapies.

Chemical Sensor Nanotechnology in Pharmaceutical Drug Research

The increase in demand for pharmaceutical treatments due to pandemic-related illnesses has created a need for improved quality control in drug manufacturing. Understanding the physical, biological, and chemical properties of APIs is an important area of health-related research. As such, research into enhanced chemical sensing and analysis of pharmaceutical ingredients (APIs) for drug development, delivery and monitoring has become immensely popular in the nanotechnology space. Nanomaterial-based chemical sensors have been used to detect and analyze APIs related to the treatment of various illnesses pre and post administration. Furthermore, electrical and optical techniques are often coupled with nano-chemical sensors to produce data for various applications which relate to the efficiencies of the APIs. In this review, we focus on the latest nanotechnology applied to probing the chemical and biochemical properties of pharmaceutical drugs, placing specific interest on several types of nanomaterial-based chemical sensors, their characteristics, detection methods, and applications. This study offers insight into the progress in drug development and monitoring research for designing improved quality control methods for pharmaceutical and health-related research.

Platinum Nanoparticles in Biomedicine: Preparation, Anti-Cancer Activity, and Drug Delivery Vehicles

Cancer is the main cause of morbidity and mortality worldwide, excluding infectious disease. Because of their lack of specificity in chemotherapy agents are used for cancer treatment, these agents have severe systemic side effects, and gradually lose their therapeutic effects because most cancers become multidrug resistant. Platinum nanoparticles (PtNPs) are relatively new agents that are being tested in cancer therapy. This review covers the various methods for the preparation and physicochemical characterization of PtNPs. PtNPs have been shown to possess some intrinsic anticancer activity, probably due to their antioxidant action, which slows tumor growth. Targeting ligands can be attached to functionalized metal PtNPs to improve their tumor targeting ability. PtNPs-based therapeutic systems can enable the controlled release of drugs, to improve the efficiency and reduce the side effects of cancer therapy. Pt-based materials play a key role in clinical research. Thus, the diagnostic and medical industries are exploring the possibility of using PtNPs as a next-generation anticancer therapeutic agent. Although, biologically prepared nanomaterials exhibit high efficacy with low concentrations, several factors still need to be considered for clinical use of PtNPs such as the source of raw materials, stability, solubility, the method of production, biodistribution, accumulation, controlled release, cell-specific targeting, and toxicological issues to human beings. The development of PtNPs as an anticancer agent is one of the most valuable approaches for cancer treatment. The future of PtNPs in biomedical applications holds great promise, especially in the area of disease diagnosis, early detection, cellular and deep tissue imaging, drug/gene delivery, as well as multifunctional therapeutics.

Sustained delivery of gemcitabine via in situ injectable mussel-inspired hydrogel for local therapy of pancreatic cancer

The issue on pervasively enhanced drug resistance of pancreatic cancer is fundamental to better understanding of gemcitabine-based chemotherapy. Currently available treatment plans containing injectable therapeutics are mainly engineered to improve...

Smart Nanotherapeutics and Lung Cancer

Lung cancer is a significant health problem worldwide. Unfortunately, current therapeutic strategies lack a sufficient level of specificity and can harm adjacent healthy cells. Consequently, to address the clinical need, novel approaches to improve treatment efficiency with minimal side effects are required. Nanotechnology can substantially contribute to the generation of differentiated products and improve patient outcomes. Evidence from previous research suggests that nanotechnology-based drug delivery systems could provide a promising platform for the targeted delivery of traditional chemotherapeutic drugs and novel small molecule therapeutic agents to treat lung cancer cells more effectively. This has also been found to improve the therapeutic index and reduce the required drug dose. Nanodrug delivery systems also provide precise control over drug release, resulting in reduced toxic side effects, controlled biodistribution, and accelerated effects or responses. This review highlights the most advanced and novel nanotechnology-based strategies, including targeted nanodrug delivery systems, stimuli-responsive nanoparticles, and bio-nanocarriers, which have recently been employed in preclinical and clinical investigations to overcome the current challenges in lung cancer treatments.

Pt(IV) Prodrugs Designed to Embed in Nanotubes of a Polysaccharide for Drug Delivery

Cisplatin exhibits a sufficient killing effect on cancer cells; however, it damages normal cells simultaneously. Herein, we developed a prodrug delivery system based on branched β-(1→3)-d-glucan. This natural biomacromolecule-based polysaccharide nanotube was modified with cisplatin embedded in the hollow cavity (BFCP), showing high anticancer activity and low toxicity in vitro. It is a broad-prospect system, which is based on biocompatible nanomaterials loaded with Pt(IV) prodrugs for cancer cell absorption with subsequent release in tumors by utilizing the intracellular reducibility. BFCP chains adopted a nanotube conformation in water, observed by transmission electron microscopy. In comparison to cisplatin, the Pt(IV) prodrugs not only displayed better antitumor properties but also had significant tumor targeting. A potent natural complex conjugated with redox-responsive platinum prodrugs is a significantly efficient tumor drug demonstrated in vitro and in vivo.

Hybrid Nanosystems for Biomedical Applications

Inorganic/organic hybrid nanosystems have been increasingly developed for their versatility and efficacy at overcoming obstacles not readily surmounted by nonhybridized counterparts. Currently, hybrid nanosystems are implemented for gene therapy, drug delivery, and phototherapy in addition to tissue regeneration, vaccines, antibacterials, biomolecule detection, imaging probes, and theranostics. Though diverse, these nanosystems can be classified according to foundational inorganic/organic components, accessory moieties, and architecture of hybridization. Within this Review, we begin by providing a historical context for the development of biomedical hybrid nanosystems before describing the properties, synthesis, and characterization of their component building blocks. Afterward, we introduce the architectures of hybridization and highlight recent biomedical nanosystem developments by area of application, emphasizing hybrids of distinctive utility and innovation. Finally, we draw attention to ongoing clinical trials before recapping our discussion of hybrid nanosystems and providing a perspective on the future of the field.

Smart Nanomaterials for Biomedical Applications-A Review

Recent advances in nanotechnology have forced the obtaining of new materials with multiple functionalities. Due to their reduced dimensions, nanomaterials exhibit outstanding physio-chemical functionalities: increased absorption and reactivity, higher surface area, molar extinction coefficients, tunable plasmonic properties, quantum effects, and magnetic and photo properties. However, in the biomedical field, it is still difficult to use tools made of nanomaterials for better therapeutics due to their limitations (including non-biocompatible, poor photostabilities, low targeting capacity, rapid renal clearance, side effects on other organs, insufficient cellular uptake, and small blood retention), so other types with controlled abilities must be developed, called "smart" nanomaterials. In this context, the modern scientific community developed a kind of nanomaterial which undergoes large reversible changes in its physical, chemical, or biological properties as a consequence of small environmental variations. This systematic mini-review is intended to provide an overview of the newest research on nanosized materials responding to various stimuli, including their up-to-date application in the biomedical field.

Designing Nanoparticle-based Drug Delivery Systems for Precision Medicine

Traditional drugs are facing bottlenecks of lower solubility, absorption, and especially the inefficient organs or cells targeting during the precision medicine era. It is urgently needed to discover and establish new methods or strategies to modify old drugs or create new ones against the above defects. With the support of nanotechnology, the solubility, absorption and targeting of traditional drugs were greatly improved by modifying and fabricating with various types of nanoparticles to some extent, though many shortages remain. In this mini-review we will focus on advances in several most commonly used nanoparticles, from their nature and design, to drug delivery system and clinical application, that they overcome heterogeneous barriers in precision medicine, thereby ultimately improve patient outcome overall.

Nanotechnology in pulmonary medicine

Nanotechnology in medicine—nanomedicine—is extensively employed to diagnose, treat, and prevent pulmonary diseases. Over the last few years, this brave new world has made remarkable progress, offering opportunities to address historical clinical challenges in pulmonary diseases including multidrug resistance, adverse side effects of conventional therapeutic agents, novel imaging, and earlier disease detection. Nanomedicine is also being applied to tackle the new emerging infectious diseases, including severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus (SARS-CoV), Middle East Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus (MERS-CoV), influenza A virus subtype H1N1 (A/H1N1), and more recently, severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2). In this review we provide both a historical overview of the application of nanomedicine to respiratory diseases and more recent cutting-edge approaches such as nanoparticle-mediated combination therapies, novel double-targeted nondrug delivery system for targeting, stimuli-responsive nanoparticles, and theranostic imaging in the diagnosis and treatment of pulmonary diseases.

Engineering precision nanoparticles for drug delivery

In recent years, the development of nanoparticles has expanded into a broad range of clinical applications. Nanoparticles have been developed to overcome the limitations of free therapeutics and navigate biological barriers — systemic, microenvironmental and cellular — that are heterogeneous across patient populations and diseases. Overcoming this patient heterogeneity has also been accomplished through precision therapeutics, in which personalized interventions have enhanced therapeutic efficacy. However, nanoparticle development continues to focus on optimizing delivery platforms with a one-size-fits-all solution. As lipid-based, polymeric and inorganic nanoparticles are engineered in increasingly specified ways, they can begin to be optimized for drug delivery in a more personalized manner, entering the era of precision medicine. In this Review, we discuss advanced nanoparticle designs utilized in both non-personalized and precision applications that could be applied to improve precision therapies. We focus on advances in nanoparticle design that overcome heterogeneous barriers to delivery, arguing that intelligent nanoparticle design can improve efficacy in general delivery applications while enabling tailored designs for precision applications, thereby ultimately improving patient outcome overall.

Advances in nanoparticle design could make substantial contributions to personalized and non-personalized medicine. In this Review, Langer, Mitchell, Peppas and colleagues discuss advances in nanoparticle design that overcome heterogeneous barriers to delivery, as well as the challenges in translating these design improvements into personalized medicine approaches.

Recent advances in the redox-responsive drug delivery nanoplatforms: A chemical structure and physical property perspective

Poor water solubility, off-target toxicity, and small therapeutic window are among major obstacles for the development of drug products. Redox-responsive drug delivery nanoplatforms not only overcome the delivery and pharmacokinetic pitfalls observed in conventional drug delivery, but also leverage the site-specific delivery properties. Cleavable diselenide and disulfide bonds in the presence of elevated reactive oxygen species (ROS) and glutathione concentration are among widely used stimuli-responsive bonds to design nanocarriers. This review covers a wide range of redox-responsive chemical structures and their properties for designing nanoparticles aiming controlled loading, delivery, and release of hydrophobic anticancer drugs at tumor site.

Targeted drug therapy in nonsmall cell lung cancer: clinical significance and possible solutions-part II (role of nanocarriers)

INTRODUCTION

Nonsmall cell lung cancer (NSCLC) accounts for 80-85% of the cases of lung cancer. The conventional therapeutic effective dosage forms used to treat NSCLC are associated with rigid administration schedules, adverse effects, and may be associated with acquired resistance to therapy. Nanocarriers may provide a suitable alternative to regular formulations to overcome inherent drawbacks and provide better treatment modalities for the patient.

AREAS COVERED

The article explores the application of drug loaded nanocarriers for lung cancer treatment. Drug-loaded nanocarriers can be modified to achieve controlled delivery at the desired tumor infested site. The type of nanocarriers employed are diverse based on polymers, liposomes, metals and a combination of two or more different base materials (hybrids). These may be designed for systemic delivery or local delivery to the lung compartment (via inhalation).

EXPERT OPINION

Nanocarriers can improve pharmacokinetics of the drug payload by improving its delivery to the desired location and can reduce associated systemic toxicities. Through nanocarriers, a wide variety of therapeutics can be administered and targeted to the cancerous site. Some examples of the utilities of nanocarriers are codelivery of drugs, gene delivery, and delivery of other biologics. Overall, the nanocarriers have promising potential in improving therapeutic efficacy of drugs used in NSCLC.