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Ahmad S, Ahmad S, Ali S, Esa M, Khan A, Yan H. Recent Advancements and Unexplored Biomedical Applications of Green Synthesized Ag and Au Nanoparticles: A Review. Int J Nanomedicine 2024; 19:3187-3215. [PMID: 38590511 PMCID: PMC10999736 DOI: 10.2147/ijn.s453775] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/07/2023] [Accepted: 03/12/2024] [Indexed: 04/10/2024] Open
Abstract
Green synthesis of silver (Ag) and gold (Au) nanoparticles (NPs) has acquired huge popularity owing to their potential applications in various fields. A large number of research articles exist in the literature describing the green synthesis of Ag and Au NPs for biomedical applications. However, these findings are scattered, making it time-consuming for researchers to locate promising advancements in Ag and Au NPs synthesis and their unexplored biomedical applications. Unlike other review articles, this systematic study not only highlights recent advancements in the green synthesis of Ag and Au NPs but also explores their potential unexplored biomedical applications. The article discusses the various synthesis approaches for the green synthesis of Ag and Au NPs highlighting the emerging developments and novel strategies. Then, the article reviews the important biomedical applications of green synthesized Ag and Au NPs by critically evaluating the expected advantages. To expose future research direction in the field, the article describes the unexplored biomedical applications of the NPs. Finally, the articles discuss the challenges and limitations in the green synthesis of Ag and Au NPs and their biomedical applications. This article will serve as a valuable reference for researchers, working on green synthesis of Ag and Au NPs for biomedical applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shahbaz Ahmad
- School of Chemistry and Biological Engineering, University of Science and Technology Beijing, Beijing, 100083, People’s Republic of China
| | - Shujaat Ahmad
- Department of Pharmacy, Shaheed Benazir Bhutto University, Sheringal Dir Upper Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan
| | - Shujat Ali
- College of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, Wenzhou University, Wenzhou, 325035, People’s Republic of China
| | - Muhammad Esa
- Department of Pharmacy, Shaheed Benazir Bhutto University, Sheringal Dir Upper Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan
| | - Ajmal Khan
- School of Chemistry and Biological Engineering, University of Science and Technology Beijing, Beijing, 100083, People’s Republic of China
| | - Hai Yan
- School of Chemistry and Biological Engineering, University of Science and Technology Beijing, Beijing, 100083, People’s Republic of China
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Yang F, Rousselot Pailley P, Backov R, Courvoisier-Dezord E, Amouric A, Tron T, Mekmouche Y. Tuning Chemoenzymatic Pd/Laccase Conformation Toward Optimized Heterogeneous Aerobic Oxidation. Chembiochem 2024; 25:e202300781. [PMID: 38117648 DOI: 10.1002/cbic.202300781] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/14/2023] [Revised: 12/19/2023] [Accepted: 12/19/2023] [Indexed: 12/22/2023]
Abstract
Heterogeneous chemoenzymatic catalysts differing in their spatial organization and relative orientation of their enzymatic laccase and Pd units confined into macrocellular silica foams were tested on veratryl alcohol oxidation. When operating under continuous flow, we show that the catalytic efficiency of hybrids is significantly enhanced when the Pd(II) complex is combined with a laccase exhibiting a surface located lysine next to the T1 oxidation site of the enzyme.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fangfang Yang
- Aix Marseille Univ, CNRS, Centrale Marseille, iSm2, 13397, Marseille, France
- College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Yantai University, 264005, Yantai, China
| | | | - Rénal Backov
- Université de Bordeaux, CNRS, CRPP, UMR5031, 115 Avenue Albert Schweitzer, 33600, Pessac, France
| | | | - Agnès Amouric
- Aix Marseille Univ, CNRS, Centrale Marseille, iSm2, 13397, Marseille, France
| | - Thierry Tron
- Aix Marseille Univ, CNRS, Centrale Marseille, iSm2, 13397, Marseille, France
| | - Yasmina Mekmouche
- Aix Marseille Univ, CNRS, Centrale Marseille, iSm2, 13397, Marseille, France
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3
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González-Granda S, Albarrán-Velo J, Lavandera I, Gotor-Fernández V. Expanding the Synthetic Toolbox through Metal-Enzyme Cascade Reactions. Chem Rev 2023; 123:5297-5346. [PMID: 36626572 DOI: 10.1021/acs.chemrev.2c00454] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
Abstract
The combination of metal-, photo-, enzyme-, and/or organocatalysis provides multiple synthetic solutions, especially when the creation of chiral centers is involved. Historically, enzymes and transition metal species have been exploited simultaneously through dynamic kinetic resolutions of racemates. However, more recently, linear cascades have appeared as elegant solutions for the preparation of valuable organic molecules combining multiple bioprocesses and metal-catalyzed transformations. Many advantages are derived from this symbiosis, although there are still bottlenecks to be addressed including the successful coexistence of both catalyst types, the need for compatible reaction media and mild conditions, or the minimization of cross-reactivities. Therefore, solutions are here also provided by means of catalyst coimmobilization, compartmentalization strategies, flow chemistry, etc. A comprehensive review is presented focusing on the period 2015 to early 2022, which has been divided into two main sections that comprise first the use of metals and enzymes as independent catalysts but working in an orchestral or sequential manner, and later their application as bionanohybrid materials through their coimmobilization in adequate supports. Each part has been classified into different subheadings, the first part based on the reaction catalyzed by the metal catalyst, while the development of nonasymmetric or stereoselective processes was considered for the bionanohybrid section.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sergio González-Granda
- Organic and Inorganic Chemistry Department, Universidad de Oviedo, 33006 Oviedo, Asturias, Spain
| | - Jesús Albarrán-Velo
- Organic and Inorganic Chemistry Department, Universidad de Oviedo, 33006 Oviedo, Asturias, Spain
| | - Iván Lavandera
- Organic and Inorganic Chemistry Department, Universidad de Oviedo, 33006 Oviedo, Asturias, Spain
| | - Vicente Gotor-Fernández
- Organic and Inorganic Chemistry Department, Universidad de Oviedo, 33006 Oviedo, Asturias, Spain
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Maslova O, Senko O, Stepanov N, Gladchenko M, Gaydamaka S, Akopyan A, Eseva E, Anisimov A, Efremenko E. Sulfur containing mixed wastes in anaerobic processing by new immobilized synthetic consortia. BIORESOURCE TECHNOLOGY 2022; 362:127794. [PMID: 35987436 DOI: 10.1016/j.biortech.2022.127794] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2022] [Revised: 08/12/2022] [Accepted: 08/13/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Methanogenic biotransformation of unusual substrates (sulfur (S)-containing wastes: non-purified vacuum gas oil, straight-run gasoline fraction (Naphtha), gas condensate, and straight-run diesel fraction) coming from oil industry after their oxidative desulfurization was investigated. Nitrogen-containing wastes (hydrolysates of chicken manure and Chlorella vulgaris biomass) were added as co-substrates to mixture with oil industry wastes. The 100 % conversion of S-organic compounds to inorganic sulfide accumulated in the reaction liquid medium was achieved with simultaneous production of biogas containing high methane percent (greater than 70 %). Polishing of effluents from methane tank was carried out by denitrifying oxidation of ammonium (DEAMOX). The high process efficiency was due to use of original immobilized artificial consortia at the stage of methanogenesis and DEAMOX. This study reveals the real potential in the processing of very complex mixtures of large-scale wastes, usually inhibiting methanogenesis, by developing biocatalysts based on synthetic biology approaches.
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Affiliation(s)
- Olga Maslova
- Faculty of Chemistry, Lomonosov Moscow State University, 1/3 Leninskiye Gory, Moscow 119991, Russia
| | - Olga Senko
- Faculty of Chemistry, Lomonosov Moscow State University, 1/3 Leninskiye Gory, Moscow 119991, Russia
| | - Nikolay Stepanov
- Faculty of Chemistry, Lomonosov Moscow State University, 1/3 Leninskiye Gory, Moscow 119991, Russia
| | - Marina Gladchenko
- Faculty of Chemistry, Lomonosov Moscow State University, 1/3 Leninskiye Gory, Moscow 119991, Russia
| | - Sergey Gaydamaka
- Faculty of Chemistry, Lomonosov Moscow State University, 1/3 Leninskiye Gory, Moscow 119991, Russia
| | - Argam Akopyan
- Faculty of Chemistry, Lomonosov Moscow State University, 1/3 Leninskiye Gory, Moscow 119991, Russia
| | - Ekaterina Eseva
- Faculty of Chemistry, Lomonosov Moscow State University, 1/3 Leninskiye Gory, Moscow 119991, Russia
| | - Alexander Anisimov
- Faculty of Chemistry, Lomonosov Moscow State University, 1/3 Leninskiye Gory, Moscow 119991, Russia
| | - Elena Efremenko
- Faculty of Chemistry, Lomonosov Moscow State University, 1/3 Leninskiye Gory, Moscow 119991, Russia.
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Upitak K, Thomas CM. One-Pot Catalysis: A Privileged Approach for Sustainable Polymers? Acc Chem Res 2022; 55:2168-2179. [PMID: 35881825 DOI: 10.1021/acs.accounts.2c00192] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
Almost all aspects of daily life involve polymers in some form or the other. However, polymer production is largely based on finite feedstocks. These limitations combined with environmental concerns force us to rethink the strategies for the synthesis of these materials. As an abundant and renewable resource, biomass is composed of a very diverse range of molecules that deserve to be valorized. The development of new methods for transforming biomass into resources suitable for polymer production remains a crucial hurdle on the road to a more sustainable chemical economy. The main challenge is to design efficient and selective transformations of abundant and inexpensive raw materials into innovative polymers. For the chemical industry to meet these challenges, process intensification must play an important role in developing cleaner and more energy-efficient technologies while aiming for safer and more sustainable processes. Catalysis is an important tool to support more sustainable plastics production by being ideally efficient, practical, and versatile. In this regard, the creation of sustainable polymers through one-pot catalysis represents an exciting frontier in materials science.In this Account, we describe some of the published advances for achieving one-pot synthesis of biobased monomers and the resulting (co)polymers. These studies demonstrate that one-pot reactions can produce sustainable materials for a wide range of applications. We show that these new multistep "one-pot" approaches are very promising from an academic and industrial point of view. These synthetic schemes have indeed allowed us to investigate the formation of new polyesters, polypeptides, and poly(meth)acrylates by different polymerization mechanisms. We discuss their efficiency by highlighting their ability to perform multiple (quantitative) synthetic transformations and bond formation steps while bypassing multiple purification procedures at the same time. While enabling the development of novel polymeric structures, we demonstrate that these one-pot procedures can also contribute to reducing the environmental footprint.In light of the growing concerns for sustainable development, these procedures may therefore allow, in the near future, one to prepare sustainable polymeric materials with advanced properties through extremely simplified routes from renewable feedstocks. Among these materials, block and alternating copolymers are unique structures that can exhibit a wide range of properties. While their multistep synthesis remains a demanding process, the one-pot synthesis of these polymers is much more scalable and can create multiblock or alternating copolymers with a wide range of potential sequences. These approaches then give access to materials whose structure and functionality can be designed to suit the need.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kanokon Upitak
- Chimie ParisTech, PSL University, CNRS, Institut de Recherche de Chimie Paris, 11 rue Pierre et Marie Curie, 75005 Paris, France
| | - Christophe M Thomas
- Chimie ParisTech, PSL University, CNRS, Institut de Recherche de Chimie Paris, 11 rue Pierre et Marie Curie, 75005 Paris, France
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Araque-Marin M, Bellot Noronha F, Capron M, Dumeignil F, Friend M, Heuson E, Itabaiana I, Jalowiecki-Duhamel L, Katryniok B, Löfberg A, Paul S, Wojcieszak R. Strengthening the Connection between Science, Society and Environment to Develop Future French and European Bioeconomies: Cutting-Edge Research of VAALBIO Team at UCCS. Molecules 2022; 27:3889. [PMID: 35745022 PMCID: PMC9231048 DOI: 10.3390/molecules27123889] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/26/2022] [Revised: 06/09/2022] [Accepted: 06/15/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
The development of the future French and European bioeconomies will involve developing new green chemical processes in which catalytic transformations are key. The VAALBIO team (valorization of alkanes and biomass) of the UCCS laboratory (Unité de Catalyse et Chimie du Solide) are working on various catalytic processes, either developing new catalysts and/or designing the whole catalytic processes. Our research is focused on both the fundamental and applied aspects of the processes. Through this review paper, we demonstrate the main topics developed by our team focusing mostly on oxygen- and hydrogen-related processes as well as on green hydrogen production and hybrid catalysis. The social impacts of the bioeconomy are also discussed applying the concept of the institutional compass.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marcia Araque-Marin
- Univ. Lille, CNRS, Centrale Lille, Univ. Artois, UMR 8181-UCCS-Unité de Catalyse et Chimie du Solide, F-59000 Lille, France; (M.A.-M.); (F.B.N.); (M.C.); (F.D.); (M.F.); (E.H.); (I.I.J.); (L.J.-D.); (A.L.); (R.W.)
| | - Fabio Bellot Noronha
- Univ. Lille, CNRS, Centrale Lille, Univ. Artois, UMR 8181-UCCS-Unité de Catalyse et Chimie du Solide, F-59000 Lille, France; (M.A.-M.); (F.B.N.); (M.C.); (F.D.); (M.F.); (E.H.); (I.I.J.); (L.J.-D.); (A.L.); (R.W.)
- Catalysis, Biocatalysis and Chemical Processes Division, National Institute of Technology, Rio de Janeiro 20081-312, Brazil
| | - Mickäel Capron
- Univ. Lille, CNRS, Centrale Lille, Univ. Artois, UMR 8181-UCCS-Unité de Catalyse et Chimie du Solide, F-59000 Lille, France; (M.A.-M.); (F.B.N.); (M.C.); (F.D.); (M.F.); (E.H.); (I.I.J.); (L.J.-D.); (A.L.); (R.W.)
| | - Franck Dumeignil
- Univ. Lille, CNRS, Centrale Lille, Univ. Artois, UMR 8181-UCCS-Unité de Catalyse et Chimie du Solide, F-59000 Lille, France; (M.A.-M.); (F.B.N.); (M.C.); (F.D.); (M.F.); (E.H.); (I.I.J.); (L.J.-D.); (A.L.); (R.W.)
| | - Michèle Friend
- Univ. Lille, CNRS, Centrale Lille, Univ. Artois, UMR 8181-UCCS-Unité de Catalyse et Chimie du Solide, F-59000 Lille, France; (M.A.-M.); (F.B.N.); (M.C.); (F.D.); (M.F.); (E.H.); (I.I.J.); (L.J.-D.); (A.L.); (R.W.)
- Department of Philosophy, George Washington University, Washington, DC 20052, USA
| | - Egon Heuson
- Univ. Lille, CNRS, Centrale Lille, Univ. Artois, UMR 8181-UCCS-Unité de Catalyse et Chimie du Solide, F-59000 Lille, France; (M.A.-M.); (F.B.N.); (M.C.); (F.D.); (M.F.); (E.H.); (I.I.J.); (L.J.-D.); (A.L.); (R.W.)
| | - Ivaldo Itabaiana
- Univ. Lille, CNRS, Centrale Lille, Univ. Artois, UMR 8181-UCCS-Unité de Catalyse et Chimie du Solide, F-59000 Lille, France; (M.A.-M.); (F.B.N.); (M.C.); (F.D.); (M.F.); (E.H.); (I.I.J.); (L.J.-D.); (A.L.); (R.W.)
- Department of Biochemical Engineering, School of Chemistry, Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro 21941-910, Brazil
| | - Louise Jalowiecki-Duhamel
- Univ. Lille, CNRS, Centrale Lille, Univ. Artois, UMR 8181-UCCS-Unité de Catalyse et Chimie du Solide, F-59000 Lille, France; (M.A.-M.); (F.B.N.); (M.C.); (F.D.); (M.F.); (E.H.); (I.I.J.); (L.J.-D.); (A.L.); (R.W.)
| | - Benjamin Katryniok
- Univ. Lille, CNRS, Centrale Lille, Univ. Artois, UMR 8181-UCCS-Unité de Catalyse et Chimie du Solide, F-59000 Lille, France; (M.A.-M.); (F.B.N.); (M.C.); (F.D.); (M.F.); (E.H.); (I.I.J.); (L.J.-D.); (A.L.); (R.W.)
| | - Axel Löfberg
- Univ. Lille, CNRS, Centrale Lille, Univ. Artois, UMR 8181-UCCS-Unité de Catalyse et Chimie du Solide, F-59000 Lille, France; (M.A.-M.); (F.B.N.); (M.C.); (F.D.); (M.F.); (E.H.); (I.I.J.); (L.J.-D.); (A.L.); (R.W.)
| | - Sébastien Paul
- Univ. Lille, CNRS, Centrale Lille, Univ. Artois, UMR 8181-UCCS-Unité de Catalyse et Chimie du Solide, F-59000 Lille, France; (M.A.-M.); (F.B.N.); (M.C.); (F.D.); (M.F.); (E.H.); (I.I.J.); (L.J.-D.); (A.L.); (R.W.)
| | - Robert Wojcieszak
- Univ. Lille, CNRS, Centrale Lille, Univ. Artois, UMR 8181-UCCS-Unité de Catalyse et Chimie du Solide, F-59000 Lille, France; (M.A.-M.); (F.B.N.); (M.C.); (F.D.); (M.F.); (E.H.); (I.I.J.); (L.J.-D.); (A.L.); (R.W.)
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López‐Agudo M, Ríos‐Lombardía N, González‐Sabín J, Lavandera I, Gotor‐Fernández V. Chemoenzymatic Oxosulfonylation-Bioreduction Sequence for the Stereoselective Synthesis of β-Hydroxy Sulfones. CHEMSUSCHEM 2022; 15:e202101313. [PMID: 34409744 PMCID: PMC9292901 DOI: 10.1002/cssc.202101313] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/22/2021] [Revised: 07/26/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
A series of optically active β-hydroxy sulfones has been obtained through an oxosulfonylation-stereoselective reduction sequence in aqueous medium. Firstly, β-keto sulfones were synthesized from arylacetylenes and sodium sulfinates to subsequently develop the carbonyl reduction in a highly selective fashion using alcohol dehydrogenases as biocatalysts. Optimization of the chemical oxosulfonylation reaction was investigated, finding inexpensive iron(III) chloride hexahydrate (FeCl3 ⋅ 6H2 O) as the catalyst of choice. The selection of isopropanol in the alcohol-water media resulted in high compatibility with the enzymatic process for enzyme cofactor recycling purposes, providing a straightforward access to both (R)- and (S)-β-hydroxy sulfones. The practical usefulness of this transformation was illustrated by describing the synthesis of a chiral intermediate of Apremilast. Interestingly, the development of a chemoenzymatic cascade approach avoided the isolation of β-keto sulfone intermediates, which allowed the preparation of chiral β-hydroxy sulfones in high conversion values (83-94 %) and excellent optical purities (94 to >99 % ee).
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Affiliation(s)
- Marina López‐Agudo
- Organic and Inorganic Chemistry DepartmentUniversity of OviedoAvenida Julián Clavería 8Oviedo33006Spain
| | | | | | - Iván Lavandera
- Organic and Inorganic Chemistry DepartmentUniversity of OviedoAvenida Julián Clavería 8Oviedo33006Spain
| | - Vicente Gotor‐Fernández
- Organic and Inorganic Chemistry DepartmentUniversity of OviedoAvenida Julián Clavería 8Oviedo33006Spain
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Bering L, Thompson J, Micklefield J. New reaction pathways by integrating chemo- and biocatalysis. TRENDS IN CHEMISTRY 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.trechm.2022.02.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/30/2023]
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9
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González-Granda S, Escot L, Lavandera I, Gotor-Fernández V. Unmasking the Hidden Carbonyl Group Using Gold(I) Catalysts and Alcohol Dehydrogenases: Design of a Thermodynamically-Driven Cascade toward Optically Active Halohydrins. ACS Catal 2022. [DOI: 10.1021/acscatal.1c05216] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Sergio González-Granda
- Organic and Inorganic Chemistry Department, Universidad de Oviedo, Oviedo, 33006 Asturias, Spain
| | - Lorena Escot
- Organic and Inorganic Chemistry Department, Universidad de Oviedo, Oviedo, 33006 Asturias, Spain
| | - Iván Lavandera
- Organic and Inorganic Chemistry Department, Universidad de Oviedo, Oviedo, 33006 Asturias, Spain
| | - Vicente Gotor-Fernández
- Organic and Inorganic Chemistry Department, Universidad de Oviedo, Oviedo, 33006 Asturias, Spain
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Remediation of Diethyl Phthalate in Aqueous Effluents with TiO2-Supported Rh0 Nanoparticles as Multicatalytic Materials. Catalysts 2021. [DOI: 10.3390/catal11101166] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
An innovative “domino” process, based on an arene hydrogenation followed by a photocatalytic step, was designed for the remediation of endocrine disrupting compounds, in highly concentrated aqueous effluents. The novelty relies on the use of TiO2-supported zerovalent Rh nanoparticles as multicatalytic materials (MCMs) for this two-step treatment, applied on diethyl phthalate, which is a model aromatic pollutant frequently present in aquatic environments. This nanocomposite advanced material, which was easily prepared by a green, wet impregnation methodology, proved to be active in the successive reactions, the reduction in the aromatic ring, and the photodegradation step. This sustainable approach offers promising alternatives in the case of photoresistive compounds.
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11
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Multicatalytic Hybrid Materials for Biocatalytic and Chemoenzymatic Cascades—Strategies for Multicatalyst (Enzyme) Co-Immobilization. Catalysts 2021. [DOI: 10.3390/catal11080936] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
During recent decades, the use of enzymes or chemoenzymatic cascades for organic chemistry has gained much importance in fundamental and industrial research. Moreover, several enzymatic and chemoenzymatic reactions have also served in green and sustainable manufacturing processes especially in fine chemicals, pharmaceutical, and flavor/fragrance industries. Unfortunately, only a few processes have been applied at industrial scale because of the low stabilities of enzymes along with the problematic processes of their recovery and reuse. Immobilization and co-immobilization offer an ideal solution to these problems. This review gives an overview of all the pathways for enzyme immobilization and their use in integrated enzymatic and chemoenzymatic processes in cascade or in a one-pot concomitant execution. We place emphasis on the factors that must be considered to understand the process of immobilization. A better understanding of this fundamental process is an essential tool not only in the choice of the best route of immobilization but also in the understanding of their catalytic activity.
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