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( -)-Epicatechin and cardiometabolic risk factors: a focus on potential mechanisms of action. Pflugers Arch 2021; 474:99-115. [PMID: 34812946 DOI: 10.1007/s00424-021-02640-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2021] [Revised: 10/14/2021] [Accepted: 11/03/2021] [Indexed: 01/27/2023]
Abstract
This review summarizes experimental evidence on the beneficial effects of ( -)-epicatechin (EC) attenuating major cardiometabolic risk factors, i.e., dyslipidemias, obesity (adipose tissue dysfunction), hyperglycemia (insulin resistance), and hypertension (endothelial dysfunction). Studies in humans are revised and complemented with experiments in animal models, and cultured cells, aiming to understand the molecular mechanisms involved in EC-mediated effects. Firstly, an assessment of EC metabolism gives relevance to both conjugated-EC metabolites product of host metabolism and microbiota-derived species. Integration and analysis of results stress the maintenance of redox homeostasis and mitigation of inflammation as relevant processes associated with cardiometabolic diseases. In these processes, EC appears having significant effects regulating NADPH oxidase (NOX)-dependent oxidant production, nitric oxide (NO) production, and energy homeostasis (mitochondrial biogenesis and function). The potential participation of cell membranes and membrane-bound receptors is also discussed in terms of direct molecular action of EC and EC metabolites reaching cells and tissues.
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Cremonini E, Iglesias DE, Kang J, Lombardo GE, Mostofinejad Z, Wang Z, Zhu W, Oteiza PI. (-)-Epicatechin and the comorbidities of obesity. Arch Biochem Biophys 2020; 690:108505. [PMID: 32679195 DOI: 10.1016/j.abb.2020.108505] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/15/2020] [Revised: 07/08/2020] [Accepted: 07/10/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Obesity has major adverse consequences on human health contributing to the development of, among others, insulin resistance and type 2 diabetes, cardiovascular disease, non-alcoholic fatty liver disease, altered behavior and cognition, and cancer. Changes in dietary habits and lifestyle could contribute to mitigate the development and/or progression of these pathologies. This review will discuss current evidence on the beneficial actions of the flavan-3-ol (-)-epicatechin (EC) on obesity-associated comorbidities. These benefits can be in part explained through EC's capacity to mitigate several common events underlying the development of these pathologies, including: i) high circulating levels of glucose, lipids and endotoxins; ii) chronic systemic inflammation; iii) tissue endoplasmic reticulum and oxidative stress; iv) insulin resistance; v) mitochondria dysfunction and vi) dysbiosis. The currently known underlying mechanisms and cellular targets of EC's beneficial effects are discussed. While, there is limited evidence from human studies supplementing with pure EC, other studies involving cocoa supplementation in humans, pure EC in rodents and in vitro studies, support a potential beneficial action of EC on obesity-associated comorbidities. This evidence also stresses the need of further research in the field, which would contribute to the development of human dietary strategies to mitigate the adverse consequences of obesity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eleonora Cremonini
- Departments of Nutrition and Environmental Toxicology, University of California, Davis, CA, USA
| | - Dario E Iglesias
- Departments of Nutrition and Environmental Toxicology, University of California, Davis, CA, USA
| | - Jiye Kang
- Departments of Nutrition and Environmental Toxicology, University of California, Davis, CA, USA
| | - Giovanni E Lombardo
- Departments of Nutrition and Environmental Toxicology, University of California, Davis, CA, USA; Department of Chemical, Biological, Pharmaceutical and Environmental Sciences, University of Messina, Messina, Italy
| | - Zahra Mostofinejad
- Departments of Nutrition and Environmental Toxicology, University of California, Davis, CA, USA
| | - Ziwei Wang
- Departments of Nutrition and Environmental Toxicology, University of California, Davis, CA, USA
| | - Wei Zhu
- Departments of Nutrition and Environmental Toxicology, University of California, Davis, CA, USA
| | - Patricia I Oteiza
- Departments of Nutrition and Environmental Toxicology, University of California, Davis, CA, USA.
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