Biomimetic hybrid membrane-based nanoplatforms: synthesis, properties and biomedical applications

Engineering Nanoplatforms for Theranostics of Atherosclerotic Plaques

Atherosclerotic plaque formation is considered the primary pathological mechanism underlying atherosclerotic cardiovascular diseases, leading to severe cardiovascular events such as stroke, acute coronary syndromes, and even sudden cardiac death. Early detection and timely intervention of plaques are challenging due to the lack of typical symptoms in the initial stages. Therefore, precise early detection and intervention play a crucial role in risk stratification of atherosclerotic plaques and achieving favorable post-interventional outcomes. The continuously advancing nanoplatforms have demonstrated numerous advantages including high signal-to-noise ratio, enhanced bioavailability, and specific targeting capabilities for imaging agents and therapeutic drugs, enabling effective visualization and management of atherosclerotic plaques. Motivated by these superior properties, various noninvasive imaging modalities for early recognition of plaques in the preliminary stage of atherosclerosis are comprehensively summarized. Additionally, several therapeutic strategies are proposed to enhance the efficacy of treating atherosclerotic plaques. Finally, existing challenges and promising prospects for accelerating clinical translation of nanoplatform-based molecular imaging and therapy for atherosclerotic plaques are discussed. In conclusion, this review provides an insightful perspective on the diagnosis and therapy of atherosclerotic plaques.

Multifaceted therapeutic applications of biomimetic nanovaccines

The development of vaccines has had a crucial role in preventing and controlling infectious diseases on a global scale. Innovative formulations of biomimetic vaccines inspired by natural defense mechanisms combine long-term antigen stability, immunogenicity, and targeted delivery with sustained release. Types of biomimetic nanoparticle (NP) include bacterial outer membrane vesicles (OMVs), cell membrane-decorated NPs, liposomes, and exosomes. These approaches have shown potential for cancer immunotherapy, and in antibacterial and antiviral applications. Despite current challenges, nanovaccines have immense potential to transform disease prevention and treatment, promising therapeutic approaches for the future. In this review, we highlight recent advances in biomimetic vaccine design, mechanisms of action, and clinical applications, emphasizing their role in personalized medicine, targeted drug delivery, and immunomodulation.

Hybrid Membrane-Coated Nanoparticles for Precise Targeting and Synergistic Therapy in Alzheimer's Disease

The blood brain barrier (BBB) limits the application of most therapeutic drugs for neurological diseases (NDs). Hybrid cell membrane-coated nanoparticles derived from different cell types can mimic the surface properties and functionalities of the source cells, further enhancing their targeting precision and therapeutic efficacy. Neuroinflammation has been increasingly recognized as a critical factor in the pathogenesis of various NDs, especially Alzheimer's disease (AD). In this study, a novel cell membrane coating is designed by hybridizing the membrane from platelets and chemokine (C-C motif) receptor 2 (CCR2) cells are overexpressed to cross the BBB and target neuroinflammatory lesions. Past unsuccessful endeavors in AD drug development underscore the challenge of achieving favorable outcomes when utilizing single-mechanism drugs.Two drugs with different mechanisms of actions into liposomes are successfully loaded to realize multitargeting treatment. In a transgenic mouse model for familial AD (5xFAD), the administration of these drug-loaded hybrid cell membrane liposomes results in a significant reduction in amyloid plaque deposition, neuroinflammation, and cognitive impairments. Collectively, the hybrid cell membrane-coated nanomaterials offer new opportunities for precise drug delivery and disease-specific targeting, which represent a versatile platform for targeted therapy in AD.

Regulatory insights into nanomedicine and gene vaccine innovation: Safety assessment, challenges, and regulatory perspectives

This analysis explores the principal regulatory concerns linked to nanomedicines and gene vaccines, including the complexities involved and the perspectives on how to navigate them. In the realm of nanomedicines, ensuring the safety of nanomaterials is paramount due to their unique characteristics and potential interactions with biological systems. Regulatory bodies are actively formulating guidelines and standards to assess the safety and risks associated with nanomedicine products, emphasizing the need for standardized characterization techniques to accurately gauge their safety and effectiveness. Regarding gene vaccines, regulatory frameworks must be tailored to address the distinct challenges posed by genetic interventions, necessitating special considerations in safety and efficacy evaluations, particularly concerning vector design, target specificity, and long-term patient monitoring. Ethical concerns such as patient autonomy, informed consent, and privacy also demand careful attention, alongside the intricate matter of intellectual property rights, which must be balanced against the imperative of ensuring widespread access to these life-saving treatments. Collaborative efforts among regulatory bodies, researchers, patent offices, and the private sector are essential to tackle these challenges effectively, with international cooperation being especially crucial given the global scope of nanomedicine and genetic vaccine development. Striking the right balance between safeguarding intellectual properties and promoting public health is vital for fostering innovation and ensuring equitable access to these ground-breaking technologies, underscoring the significance of addressing these regulatory hurdles to fully harness the potential benefits of nanomedicine and gene vaccines for enhancing healthcare outcomes on a global scale. STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE: Several biomaterials are being proposed for the development of nanovaccines, from polymeric micelles, PLGA-/PEI-/PLL-nanoparticles, solid lipid nananoparticles, cationic lipoplexes, liposomes, hybrid materials, dendrimers, carbon nanotubes, hydrogels, to quantum dots. Lipid nanoparticles (LNPs) have gained tremendous attention since the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approval of Pfizer and Moderna's COVID-19 vaccines, raising public awareness to the regulatory challenges associated with nanomedicines and genetic vaccines. This review provides insights into the current perspectives and potential strategies for addressing these issues, including clinical trials. By navigating these regulatory landscapes effectively, we can unlock the full potential of nanomedicine and genetic vaccines using a range of promising biomaterials towards improving healthcare outcomes worldwide.

Nanomedicine for T-Cell Mediated Immunotherapy

T-cell immunotherapy offers outstanding advantages in the treatment of various diseases, and with the selection of appropriate targets, efficient disease treatment can be achieved. T-cell immunotherapy has made great progress, but clinical results show that only a small proportion of patients can benefit from T-cell immunotherapy. The extensive mechanistic work outlines a blueprint for using T cells as a new option for immunotherapy, but also presents new challenges, including the balance between different fractions of T cells, the inherent T-cell suppression patterns in the disease microenvironment, the acquired loss of targets, and the decline of T-cell viability. The diversity, flexibility, and intelligence of nanomedicines give them great potential for enhancing T-cell immunotherapy. Here, how T-cell immunotherapy strategies can be adapted with different nanomaterials to enhance therapeutic efficacy is discussed. For two different pathological states, immunosuppression and immune activation, recent advances in nanomedicines for T-cell immunotherapy in diseases such as cancers, rheumatoid arthritis, systemic lupus erythematosus, ulcerative colitis, and diabetes are summarized. With a focus on T-cell immunotherapy, this review highlights the outstanding advantages of nanomedicines in disease treatment, and helps advance one's understanding of the use of nanotechnology to enhance T-cell immunotherapy.

Catalytic Nanoparticles in Biomedical Applications: Exploiting Advanced Nanozymes for Therapeutics and Diagnostics

Catalytic nanoparticles (CNPs) as heterogeneous catalyst reveals superior activity due to their physio-chemical features, such as high surface-to-volume ratio and unique optical, electric, and magnetic properties. The CNPs, based on their physio-chemical nature, can either increase the reactive oxygen species (ROS) level for tumor and antibacterial therapy or eliminate the ROS for cytoprotection, anti-inflammation, and anti-aging. In addition, the catalytic activity of nanozymes can specifically trigger a specific reaction accompanied by the optical feature change, presenting the feasibility of biosensor and bioimaging applications. Undoubtedly, CNPs play a pivotal role in pushing the evolution of technologies in medical and clinical fields, and advanced strategies and nanomaterials rely on the input of chemical experts to develop. Herein, a systematic and comprehensive review of the challenges and recent development of CNPs for biomedical applications is presented from the viewpoint of advanced nanomaterial with unique catalytic activity and additional functions. Furthermore, the biosafety issue of applying biodegradable and non-biodegradable nanozymes and future perspectives are critically discussed to guide a promising direction in developing span-new nanozymes and more intelligent strategies for overcoming the current clinical limitations.

Unlocking the power of nanomedicine: Cell membrane-derived biomimetic cancer nanovaccines for cancer treatment

Over the past decades, nanomedicine researchers have dedicated their efforts to developing nanoscale platforms capable of more precisely delivering drug payloads to attack tumors. Cancer nanovaccines are exhibiting a distinctive capability in inducing tumor-specific antitumor responses. Nevertheless, there remain numerous challenges that must be addressed for cancer nanovaccines to evoke sufficient therapeutic effects. Cell membrane-derived nanovaccines are an emerging class of cancer vaccines that comprise a synthetic nanoscale core camouflaged by naturally derived cell membranes. The specific cell membrane has a biomimetic nanoformulation with several distinctive abilities, such as immune evasion, enhanced biocompatibility, and tumor targeting, typically associated with a source cell. Here, we discuss the advancements of cell membrane-derived nanovaccines and how these vaccines are used for cancer therapeutics. Translational endeavors are currently in progress, and additional research is also necessary to effectively address crucial areas of demand, thereby facilitating the future successful translation of these emerging vaccine platforms.

Cell Membrane Camouflaged Biomimetic Nanoparticles as a Versatile Platform for Brain Diseases Treatment

Although there are various advancements in biomedical in the past few decades, there are still challenges in the treatment of brain diseases. The main difficulties are the inability to deliver a therapeutic dose of the drug to the brain through the blood-brain barrier (BBB) and the serious side effects of the drug. Thus, it is essential to select biocompatible drug carriers and novel therapeutic tools to better enhance the effect of brain disease treatment. In recent years, biomimetic nanoparticles (BNPs) based on natural cell membranes, which have excellent biocompatibility and low immunogenicity, are widely used in the treatment of brain diseases to enable the drug to successfully cross the BBB and target brain lesions. BNPs can prolong the circulation time in vivo, are more conducive to drug aggregation in brain lesions. Cell membranes (CMs) from cancer cells (CCs), red blood cells (RBCs), white blood cells (WBCs), and so on are used as biomimetic coatings for nanoparticles (NPs) to achieve the ability to target, evade clearance, or stimulate the immune system. This review summarizes the application of different cell sources as BNPs coatings in the treatment of brain diseases and discusses the possibilities and challenges of clinical translation.

Antifouling modification for high-performance isolation of circulating tumor cells

Circulating tumor cells (CTCs), which shed from solid tumor tissue into blood circulatory system, have attracted wide attention as a biomarker in the early diagnosis and prognosis of cancer. Given their potential significance in clinics, many platforms have been developed to separate CTCs. However, the high-performance isolation of CTCs remains significant challenges including achieving the sensitivity and specificity necessary due to their extreme rarity and severe biofouling in blood, such as billions of background cells and various proteins. With the advancement of CTCs detection technologies in recent years, the highly efficient and highly specific detection platforms for CTCs have gradually been developed, resulting in improving CTC capture efficiency, purity and sensitivity. In this review, we systematically describe the current strategies with surface modifications by utilizing the antifouling property of polymer, peptide, protein and cell membrane for high-performance enrichment of CTCs. To wrap up, we discuss the substantial challenges facing by current technologies and the potential directions for future research and development.

Advances in Composite Biofilm Biomimetic Nanodrug Delivery Systems for Cancer Treatment

Single biofilm biomimetic nanodrug delivery systems based on single cell membranes, such as erythrocytes and cancer cells, have immune evasion ability, good biocompatibility, prolonged blood circulation, and high tumor targeting. Because of the different characteristics and functions of each single cell membrane, more researchers are using various hybrid cell membranes according to their specific needs. This review focuses on several different types of biomimetic nanodrug-delivery systems based on composite biofilms and looks forward to the challenges and possible development directions of biomimetic nanodrug-delivery systems based on composite biofilms to provide reference and ideas for future research.

Progress of cell membrane-derived biomimetic nanovesicles for cancer phototherapy

In recent years, considerable attention has been given to phototherapy, including photothermal and photodynamic therapy to kill tumor cells by producing heat or reactive oxygen species (ROS). It has the high merits of noninvasiveness and limited drug resistance. To fully utilize this therapy, an extraordinary nanovehicle is required to target phototherapeutic agents in the tumor cells. Nanovesicles embody an ideal strategy for drug delivery applications. Cell membrane-derived biomimetic nanovesicles represent a developing type of nanocarrier. Combining this technique with cancer phototherapy could enable a novel strategy. Herein, efforts are made to describe a comprehensive overview of cell membrane-derived biomimetic nanovesicles for cancer phototherapy. The description in this review is mainly based on representative examples of exosome-derived biomimetic nanomedicine research, ranging from their comparison with traditional nanocarriers to extensive applications in cancer phototherapy. Additionally, the challenges and future prospectives for translating these for clinical application are discussed.

Bioinspired extracellular vesicle-coated silica nanoparticles as selective delivery systems

In recent years, there has been a breakthrough in the integration of artificial nanoplatforms with natural biomaterials for the development of more efficient drug delivery systems. The formulation of bioinspired nanosystems, combining the benefits of synthetic nanoparticles with the natural features of biological materials, provides an efficient strategy to improve nanoparticle circulation time, biocompatibility and specificity toward targeted tissues. Among others biological materials, extracellular vesicles (EVs), membranous structures secreted by many types of cells composed by a protein rich lipid bilayer, have shown a great potential as drug delivery systems themselves and in combination with artificial nanoparticles. The reason for such interest relays on their natural properties, such as overcoming several biological barriers or migration towards specific tissues. Here, we propose the use of mesoporous silica nanoparticles (MSNs) as efficient and versatile nanocarriers in combination with tumor derived extracellular vesicles (EVs) for the development of selective drug delivery systems. The hybrid nanosystems demonstrated selective cellular internalization in parent cells, indicating that the EV targeting capabilities were efficiently transferred to MSNs by the developed coating strategy. As a result, EVs-coated MSNs provided an enhanced and selective intracellular accumulation of doxorubicin and a specific cytotoxic activity against targeted cancer cells, revealing these hybrid nanosystems as promising candidates for the development of targeted treatments.

Beyond Extracellular Vesicles: Hybrid Membrane Nanovesicles as Emerging Advanced Tools for Biomedical Applications

Extracellular vesicles (EVs), involved in essential physiological and pathological processes of the organism, have emerged as powerful tools for disease treatment owing to their unique natural biological characteristics and artificially acquired advantages. However, the limited targeting ability, insufficient production yield, and low drug-loading capability of natural simplex EVs have greatly hindered their development in clinical translation. Therefore, the establishment of multifunctional hybrid membrane nanovesicles (HMNVs) with favorable adaptability and flexibility has become the key to expanding the practical application of EVs. This timely review summarizes the current progress of HMNVs for biomedical applications. Different HMNVs preparation strategies including physical, chemical, and chimera approaches are first discussed. This review then individually describes the diverse types of HMNVs based on homologous or heterologous cell membrane substances, a fusion of cell membrane and liposome, as well as a fusion of cell membrane and bacterial membrane. Subsequently, a specific emphasis is placed on the highlight of biological applications of the HMNVs toward various diseases with representative examples. Finally, ongoing challenges and prospects of the currently developed HMNVs in clinical translational applications are briefly presented. This review will not only stimulate broad interest among researchers from diverse disciplines but also provide valuable insights for the development of promising nanoplatforms in precision medicine.

Combination cancer imaging and phototherapy mediated by membrane-wrapped nanoparticles

Cancer is a devastating health problem with inadequate treatment options. Many conventional treatments for solid-tumor cancers lack tumor specificity, which results in low efficacy and off-target damage to healthy tissues. Nanoparticle (NP)-mediated photothermal therapy (PTT) is a promising minimally invasive treatment for solid-tumor cancers that has entered clinical trials. Traditionally, NPs used for PTT are coated with passivating agents and/or targeting ligands, but alternative coatings are being explored to enhance tumor specific delivery. In particular, cell-derived membranes have emerged as promising coatings that improve the biointerfacing of photoactive NPs, which reduces their immune recognition, prolongs their systemic circulation and increases their tumor accumulation, allowing for more effective PTT. To maximize treatment success, membrane-wrapped nanoparticles (MWNPs) that enable dual tumor imaging and PTT are being explored. These multifunctional theranostic NPs can be used to enhance tumor detection and/or ensure a sufficient quantity of NPs that have arrived in the tumor prior to laser irradiation. This review summarizes the current state-of-the-art in engineering MWNPs for combination cancer imaging and PTT and discusses considerations for the path toward clinical translation.

Bioinspired nanovesicles released from injectable hydrogels facilitate diabetic wound healing by regulating macrophage polarization and endothelial cell dysfunction

Wound healing is one of the major global health concerns in diabetic patients. Overactivation of proinflammatory M1 macrophages could lead to delayed wound healing in diabetes. 4-octyl itaconate (4OI), a derivative of the metabolite itaconate, has aroused growing interest recently on account of its excellent anti-inflammatory properties. Cell membrane coating is widely regarded as a novel biomimetic strategy to deliver drugs and inherit properties derived from source cells for biomedical applications. Herein, we fused induced pluripotent stem cell-derived endothelial cell (iEC) membrane together with M1 type macrophage membrane to construct a hybrid membrane (iEC-M) camouflaged 4OI nanovesicles (4OI@iEC-M). Furthermore, bioinspired nanovesicles 4OI@iEC-M are incorporated into the injectable, multifunctional gelatin methacryloyl hydrogels for diabetic wound repair and regeneration. In our study, bioinspired nanovesicles could achieve dual-targeted deliver of 4OI into both M1 macrophages and endothelial cells, thereby promoting macrophage polarization and protecting endothelial cells. With the synergistically anti-inflammatory and immunoregulative effects, the bioinspired nanovesicles-loaded hydrogels could facilitate neovascularization and exhibit superior diabetic wound repair and regeneration. Taken together, this study might provide a novel strategy to facilitate diabetic wound healing, thereby reducing limb amputation and mortality of diabetes.

Biomimetic nanoparticle synchronizing pyroptosis induction and mitophagy inhibition for anti-tumor therapy

Inducing pyroptosis in cancer cells can result in a strong anti-tumor immune response. Our preliminary study indicates that pyroptosis can be temporarily strengthened by disrupting mitochondria, but ultimately diminished by defensive mitophagy. Here, this study reports a nano-system camouflaged with hybrid membranes consisting of homologous cell membrane and corresponding mitochondrial membrane, which is used to deliver a drug complex Ca@GOx consisting of calcium phosphate and glucose oxidase. By taking advantage of the homing effects of cell membrane and the orientated fusion mechanism of subcellular membrane, the nano-system is able to deliver Ca@GOx to mitochondria, induce mitochondrial Ca2+ overload and generate significant levels of ROS, thus leading to pyroptosis. However, it's found that this system exhibits limited anti-tumor effects in vivo due to the compensatory activation of mitophagy serving as negative feedback to pyroptosis. To address this issue, mitophagy-inhibiting chloroquine is loaded into nanoparticles to intensify pyroptosis. As a result, the combination significantly promotes tumor infiltration of CD8+T cells and improves anti-tumor effects. Together, this study establishes a rational combination of targeted mitochondria disruption and mitophagy blockage for effective pyroptosis-based therapy.

Macrophage-Cancer Hybrid Membrane-Camouflaged Nanoplatforms for HIF-1α Gene Silencing-Enhanced Sonodynamic Therapy of Glioblastoma

Fabrication of ingenious nanomedicines to penetrate the blood-brain barrier (BBB) and blood-brain-tumor barrier (BBTB) for efficient glioblastoma (GBM) therapy remains a big challenge. In this work, macrophage-cancer hybrid membrane-camouflaged nanoplatforms were fabricated for target gene silencing-enhanced sonodynamic therapy (SDT) of GBM. The J774.A.1 macrophage cell membrane and the U87 glioblastoma cell membrane were fused to create a hybrid biomembrane (JUM) with good BBB penetration and glioblastoma targeting capability for camouflaging. The ZIF-8 nanoparticles were synthesized for indocyanine green (ICG) and HIF-1α siRNA encapsulation (ICG-siRNA@ZIF-8, ISZ) with a high loading efficiency. After accumulation in the tumor sites, the pH sensitivity of the nanoplatform enabled release of ICG and HIF-1α siRNA in the tumor cells. Then, the expression of HIF-1α could be efficiently inhibited by the released HIF-1α siRNA to increase the SDT efficiency under hypoxic conditions. In vitro and in vivo experiments revealed that ISZ@JUM showed good BBB penetration and brain tumor-targeting capability and could achieve effective gene silencing-enhanced SDT, demonstrating great promise for clinical applications.

Formulation strategies to provide oxygen-release to contrast local hypoxia for transplanted islets

Islet transplantation refers to the transfusion of healthy islet cells into the diabetic recipients and reconstruction of their endogenous insulin secretion to achieve insulin independence. It is a minimally invasive surgery that holds renewed prospect as a therapeutic method for type 1 diabetes mellitus. However, poor oxygenation in the early post-transplantation period is considered as one of the major causes of islet loss and dysfunction. Due to the metabolism chacteristics, islets required a high supply of oxygen for cell survival while a hypoxia environment would lead to severe islet loss and graft failure. Emerging strategies have been proposed, including providing external oxygen and speeding up revascularization. From the perspective of formulation science, it is feasible and practical to protect transplanted islets by oxygen-release before revascularization as opposed to local hypoxia. In this study, we review the potential formulation strategies that could provide oxygen-release by either delivering external oxygen or triggering localized oxygen generation for transplanted islets.

Versatile biomimetic nanomedicine for treating cancer and inflammation disease

Nanosized drug delivery systems (NDDSs) have emerged as a powerful tool to optimize drug delivery in complex diseases, including cancer and inflammation. However, the therapeutic effect of NDDSs is still far from satisfactory due to their poor circulation time, low delivery efficiency, and innate toxicity. Fortunately, biomimetic approaches offer new opportunities to develop nanomedicine, which is derived from a variety of native biomolecules including cells, exosomes, bacteria, and so on. Since inheriting the superior biocompatibility and versatile functions of natural materials, biomimetic nanomedicine can mimic biological processes, prolong blood circulation, and lower immunogenicity, serving as a desired platform for precise drug delivery for treating cancer and inflammatory disease. In this review, we outline recent advances in biomimetic NDDSs, which consist of two concepts: biomimetic exterior camouflage and bioidentical molecule construction. We summarize engineering strategies that further functionalized current biomimetic NDDSs. A series of functional biomimetic NDDSs created by our group are introduced. We conclude with an outlook on remaining challenges and possible directions for biomimetic NDDSs. We hope that better technologies can be inspired and invented to advance drug delivery systems for cancer and inflammation therapy.

Cell membrane-coated nanoparticles: a novel multifunctional biomimetic drug delivery system

Recently, nanoparticle-based drug delivery systems have been widely used for the treatment, prevention, and detection of diseases. Improving the targeted delivery ability of nanoparticles has emerged as a critical issue that must be addressed as soon as possible. The bionic cell membrane coating technology has become a novel concept for the design of nanoparticles. The diverse biological roles of cell membrane surface proteins endow nanoparticles with several functions, such as immune escape, long circulation time, and targeted delivery; therefore, these proteins are being extensively studied in the fields of drug delivery, detoxification, and cancer treatment. Furthermore, hybrid cell membrane-coated nanoparticles enhance the beneficial effects of monotypic cell membranes, resulting in multifunctional and efficient delivery carriers. This review focuses on the synthesis, development, and application of the cell membrane coating technology and discusses the function and mechanism of monotypic/hybrid cell membrane-modified nanoparticles in detail. Moreover, it summarizes the applications of cell membranes from different sources and discusses the challenges that may be faced during the clinical application of bionic carriers, including their production, mechanism, and quality control. We hope this review will attract more scholars toward bionic cell membrane carriers and provide certain ideas and directions for solving the existing problems.

Immune-regulating camouflaged nanoplatforms: A promising strategy to improve cancer nano-immunotherapy

Although nano-immunotherapy has advanced dramatically in recent times, there remain two significant hurdles related to immune systems in cancer treatment, such as (namely) inevitable immune elimination of nanoplatforms and severely immunosuppressive microenvironment with low immunogenicity, hampering the performance of nanomedicines. To address these issues, several immune-regulating camouflaged nanocomposites have emerged as prevailing strategies due to their unique characteristics and specific functionalities. In this review, we emphasize the composition, performances, and mechanisms of various immune-regulating camouflaged nanoplatforms, including polymer-coated, cell membrane-camouflaged, and exosome-based nanoplatforms to evade the immune clearance of nanoplatforms or upregulate the immune function against the tumor. Further, we discuss the applications of these immune-regulating camouflaged nanoplatforms in directly boosting cancer immunotherapy and some immunogenic cell death-inducing immunotherapeutic modalities, such as chemotherapy, photothermal therapy, and reactive oxygen species-mediated immunotherapies, highlighting the current progress and recent advancements. Finally, we conclude the article with interesting perspectives, suggesting future tendencies of these innovative camouflaged constructs towards their translation pipeline.

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Various immune-regulating camouflaged nanoplatforms are emphasized.

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Immunotherapeutic applications of camouflaged nanoplatforms are systematically summarized.

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ICD-induced therapeutic modalities based on these nanoplatforms are discussed.

Cell-Membrane-Coated Nanoparticles for Targeted Drug Delivery to the Brain for the Treatment of Neurological Diseases

Neurological diseases (NDs) are a significant cause of disability and death in the global population. However, effective treatments still need to be improved for most NDs. In recent years, cell-membrane-coated nanoparticles (CMCNPs) as drug-targeting delivery systems have become a research hotspot. Such a membrane-derived, nano drug-delivery system not only contributes to avoiding immune clearance but also endows nanoparticles (NPs) with various cellular and functional mimicries. This review article first provides an overview of the function and mechanism of single/hybrid cell-membrane-derived NPs. Then, we highlight the application and safety of CMCNPs in NDs. Finally, we discuss the challenges and opportunities in the field.

Recent Advances in Metal-Organic Framework (MOF) Asymmetric Membranes/Composites for Biomedical Applications

Metal-organic frameworks (MOFs) are a new class of porous crystalline materials composed of metal and organic material. MOFs have fascinating properties, such as fine tunability, large specific surface area, and high porosity. MOFs are widely used for environmental protection, biosensors, regenerative medicine, medical engineering, cell therapy, catalysts, and drug delivery. Recent studies have reported various significant properties of MOFs for biomedical applications, such as drug detection and delivery. In contrast, MOFs have limitations such as low stability and low specificity in binding to the target. MOF-based membranes improve the stability and specificity of conventional MOFs by increasing the surface area and developing the possibility of MOF-ligand binding, while conjugated membranes dramatically increase the area of active functional groups. This special property makes them attractive for drug and biosensor fabrication, as both the spreading and solubility components of the porosity can be changed. Asymmetric membranes are a structure with high potential in the biomedical field, due to the different characteristics on its two surfaces, the possibility of adjusting various properties such as the size of porosity, transfer rate and selectivity, and surface properties such as hydrophilicity and hydrophobicity. MOF assisted asymmetric membranes can provide a platform with different properties and characteristics in the biomedical field. The latest version of MOF materials/membranes has several potential applications, especially in medical engineering, cell therapy, drug delivery, and regenerative medicine, which will be discussed in this review, along with their advantages, disadvantages, and challenges.

Erythrocyte-Inspired Functional Materials for Biomedical Applications

Erythrocytes are the most abundant cells in the blood. As the results of long-term natural selection, their specific biconcave discoid morphology and cellular composition are responsible for gaining excellent biological performance. Inspired by the intrinsic features of erythrocytes, various artificial biomaterials emerge and find broad prospects in biomedical applications such as therapeutic delivery, bioimaging, and tissue engineering. Here, a comprehensive review from the fabrication to the applications of erythrocyte-inspired functional materials is given. After summarizing the biomaterials mimicking the biological functions of erythrocytes, the synthesis strategies of particles with erythrocyte-inspired morphologies are presented. The emphasis is on practical biomedical applications of these bioinspired functional materials. The perspectives for the future possibilities of the advanced erythrocyte-inspired biomaterials are also discussed. It is hoped that the summary of existing studies can inspire researchers to develop novel biomaterials; thus, accelerating the progress of these biomaterials toward clinical biomedical applications.

Cancer cell membrane coated PLGA nanoparticles as biomimetic drug delivery system for improved cancer therapy

Based on the immune escape and homologous adhesion ability of cancer cells, a drug delivery system (DDS) could overcome the dilemma of immune clearance and non-specific binding by coating the cancer cell membrane (CCM). In this study, a biomimetic DDS based on CCM and poly lactic acid-glycolic acid (PLGA) nanoparticles was successfully constructed for tumor active and homologous targeting therapy. The doped CCM on the surface of the nanoparticle enabled the DDS to achieve immune escape and had an affinity for tumor tissues. The cellular uptake and in vivo distribution tests showed a superior cellular affinity of CCM coated PLGA nanoparticles (CCMNPs) than that of PLGA nanoparticles (PLGANPs). All of those results proved that CCMNPs endowed with drug-loaded nanoparticles had the abilities of immune escape and homologous targeting through the biological functional proteins retained on the coated CCM. In addition, the tumor inhibition rate of CCMNPs in tumor-bearing nude mice was 1.3 and 2.0-fold compared to PLGANPs and PTX injection, which showed the capacity to efficiently and accurately deliver drugs to cancer sites improved the therapeutic effect of tumor and achieved accurately targeted therapy.

Cell surface-nanoengineering for cancer targeting immunoregulation and precise immunotherapy

Living cells have become ideal therapeutic agents for cancer treatment owing to their innate activities, such as efficient tumor targeting and delivery, easy engineering, immunomodulatory properties, and fewer adverse effects. However, cell agents are often fragile to rigorous tumor microenvironment (TME) and limited by inadequate therapeutic responses, leading to unwanted treatment efficacy. Cell nanomodification, particularly the cell surface-nanoengineering has emerged as reliable and efficient strategy that not only combines cell activity properties with nanomaterials but also endows them with extra novel functions, enabling to achieve remarkable treatment results. In this review, we systematically introduce two major strategies have been adopted to develop cell surface engineering with nanomaterials, mainly including living cell nano-backpacks and cell membrane-mimicking nanoparticles (NPs). Based on various functional NPs and cell types, we focus on reviewing the cell-surface nanoengineering for targeted drug delivery, immune microenvironment regulation, and precisely antitumor therapy. The advances and challenges of cell surface-nanoengineered antitumor agents for cancer therapy applications are further discussed in future clinical practice. This review provides an overview of the advances in cell surface-engineering for targeting immunoregulation and treatment and could contribute to the future of advanced cell-based antitumor therapeutic applications. This article is categorized under: Therapeutic Approaches and Drug Discovery > Nanomedicine for Oncologic Disease Therapeutic Approaches and Drug Discovery > Emerging Technologies Nanotechnology Approaches to Biology > Cells at the Nanoscale.

Bioinspired Platelet-like Nanovector for Enhancing Cancer Therapy via P-Selectin Targeting

Cancer is a major threat to the health of humans. Recently, various natural products including curcumin (CCM) have attracted enormous interest for efficacious cancer therapy. However, natural therapeutic agents still encounter certain challenges such as rapid clearance, low bioavailability, and poor tumor targeting. Recently, the platelet membrane (PM) camouflaged nanoparticle has provided a promising solution for cancer targeting therapy. Nevertheless, only limited efforts have been dedicated to systematically explore the mechanism of affinity between PM bioinspired nanoparticles and various tumor cells. Herein, a CCM-encapsulated platelet membrane biomimetic lipid vesicle (CCM@PL) with a size of 163.2 nm, zeta potential of -31.8 mV and encapsulation efficiency of 93.62% was developed. The values of the area under the concentration-time curve and mean residence time for CCM@PL were 3.08 times and 3.04 times those of CCM, respectively. Furthermore, this PM biomimetic carrier showed an excellent affinity against Huh-7, SK-OV-3 and MDA-MB-231 cell lines due to the biomolecular interaction between P-selectin on the PM and tumoral CD44 receptors. In addition, CCM@PL displayed enhanced cytotoxicity compared with free CCM and the synthetic formulation. Overall, our results suggest that this developed PM biomimetic lipid nanovector has great potential for targeted cancer treatment and natural components delivery.

Nanocarrier-based delivery of arsenic trioxide for hepatocellular carcinoma therapy

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) poses a severe threat to human health and economic development. Despite many attempts at HCC treatment, most are inevitably affected by the genetic instability and variability of tumor cells. Arsenic trioxide (ATO) has shown to be effective in HCC. However, time-consuming challenges, especially the optimal concentration in tumor tissue and bioavailability of ATO, remain to be overcome for its transition from the bench to the bedside. To bypass these issues, nanotechnology-based delivery systems have been developed for prevention, diagnosis, monitoring and treatment in recent years. This article is a systematic overview of the latest contributions and detailed insights into ATO-loaded nanocarriers, with particular attention paid to strategies for improving the efficacy of nanocarriers of ATO.

Engineered tumor cell-derived vaccines against cancer: The art of combating poison with poison

Tumor vaccination is a promising approach for tumor immunotherapy because it presents high specificity and few side effects. However, tumor vaccines that contain only a single tumor antigen can allow immune system evasion by tumor variants. Tumor antigens are complex and heterogeneous, and identifying a single antigen that is uniformly expressed by tumor cells is challenging. Whole tumor cells can produce comprehensive antigens that trigger extensive tumor-specific immune responses. Therefore, tumor cells are an ideal source of antigens for tumor vaccines. A better understanding of tumor cell-derived vaccines and their characteristics, along with the development of new technologies for antigen delivery, can help improve vaccine design. In this review, we summarize the recent advances in tumor cell-derived vaccines in cancer immunotherapy and highlight the different types of engineered approaches, mechanisms, administration methods, and future perspectives. We discuss tumor cell-derived vaccines, including whole tumor cell components, extracellular vesicles, and cell membrane-encapsulated nanoparticles. Tumor cell-derived vaccines contain multiple tumor antigens and can induce extensive and potent tumor immune responses. However, they should be engineered to overcome limitations such as insufficient immunogenicity and weak targeting. The genetic and chemical engineering of tumor cell-derived vaccines can greatly enhance their targeting, intelligence, and functionality, thereby realizing stronger tumor immunotherapy effects. Further advances in materials science, biomedicine, and oncology can facilitate the clinical translation of tumor cell-derived vaccines.

Biomimetic Nanovesicles—Sources, Design, Production Methods, and Applications

Despite all the progress in the field of liposomes and nanoparticles for applications as drug and gene delivery systems, the specific targeting and immune system escape capabilities of these systems are still limited. Biomimetic nanovesicles emerged as a strategy to overcome these and other limitations associated with synthetic carriers, such as short circulation time, cytotoxicity, and difficulty in crossing biological barriers, since many of the desirable abilities of drug delivery systems are innate characteristics of biological vesicles. Thus, the question arises: would biomimetic nanovesicles be responsible for addressing these advances? It is currently known that biomimetic nanovesicles (BNV) can combine the intrinsic advantages of natural materials with the well-known production methods and controllability of synthetic systems. Besides, the development of the biotechnology and nanotechnology fields has provided a better understanding of the functionalities of biological vesicles and the means for the design and production of biomimetic nanovesicles (BNV). Based on this, this work will focus on tracking the main research on biomimetic nanovesicles (BNV) applied as drug and gene delivery systems, and for vaccines applications. In addition, it will describe the different sources of natural vesicles, the technical perspectives on obtaining them, and the possibility of their hybridization with synthetic liposomes.

Dual-Modal Nanoscavenger for Detoxification of Organophosphorus Compounds

Organophosphorus compounds (OPs) pose great military and civilian hazards. However, therapeutic and prophylactic antidotes against OP poisoning remain challenging. In this study, we first developed a novel nanoscavenger (rOPH/ZIF-8@E-Lipo) against methyl paraoxon (MP) poisoning using enzyme immobilization and erythrocyte-liposome hybrid membrane camouflage techniques. Then, we evaluated the physicochemical characterization, stability, and biocompatibility of the nanoscavengers. Afterward, we examined acetylcholinesterase (AChE) activity, cell viability, and intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) to indicate the protective effects of the nanoscavengers in vitro. Following the pharmacokinetic and biodistribution studies, we further evaluated the therapeutic and prophylactic detoxification efficacy of the nanoscavengers against MP in various poisoning settings. Finally, we explored the penetration capacity of the nanoscavengers across the blood-brain barrier (BBB). The present study validated the successful construction of a novel nanoscavenger with excellent stability and biocompatibility. In vitro, the resulting nanoscavenger exhibited a significant protection against MP-induced AChE inactivation, oxidative stress, and cytotoxicity. In vivo, apart from the positive therapeutic effects, the nanoscavengers also exerted significant prophylactic detoxification efficacy against single lethal MP exposure, repeated lethal MP challenges, and sublethal MP poisoning. These excellent detoxification effects of the nanoscavengers against OPs may originate from a dual-mode mechanism of inner recombinant organophosphorus hydrolase (rOPH) and outer erythrocyte membrane-anchored AChE. Finally, in vitro and in vivo studies jointly demonstrated that monosialoganglioside (GM1)-modified rOPH/ZIF-8@E-Lipo could penetrate the BBB with high efficiency. In conclusion, a stable and safe dual-modal nanoscavenger was developed with BBB penetration capability, providing a promising strategy for the treatment and prevention of OP poisoning.

Recent advances in biological membrane-based nanomaterials for cancer therapy

Nanomaterials have shown significant advantages in cancer theranostics, owing to their enhanced permeability and retention effect in tumors and multi-function integration capability. Biological membranes, which are collected from various cells and their secreted membrane structures, can further be applied to establish membrane-based nanomaterials with perfect biocompatibility, tumor-targeting capacity, immune-stimulatory activity and adjustable versatility for cancer therapy. In this review, according to their source, membranes are divided into four groups: (1) cell membranes; (2) secretory membranes; (3) engineered membranes; and (4) hybrid membranes. First, cell membranes can be extracted from natural cells of the body, tumor tissue cells, and bacteria. Furthermore, secretory membranes mainly refer to exosome, apoptotic body and bacterial outer membrane vesicle, and membranes with specific protein/peptide expression or therapeutic inclusions are obtained from engineered cells. Finally, a hybrid membrane will be constituted by two or more of the abovementioned membranes. These membranes can form drug-carrying nanoparticles themselves or coat multi-functional nanoparticles, further realizing efficient cancer therapy. We summarize the application of various biological membrane-based nanomaterials in cancer therapy and point out their advantages as well as the places that need to be further improved, providing systematic knowledge of this field and a strategy for further optimization.

Membrane-wrapped nanoparticles for photothermal cancer therapy

Cancer is a global health problem that needs effective treatment strategies. Conventional treatments for solid-tumor cancers are unsatisfactory because they cause unintended harm to healthy tissues and are susceptible to cancer cell resistance. Nanoparticle-mediated photothermal therapy is a minimally invasive treatment for solid-tumor cancers that has immense promise as a standalone therapy or adjuvant to other treatments like chemotherapy, immunotherapy, or radiotherapy. To maximize the success of photothermal therapy, light-responsive nanoparticles can be camouflaged with cell membranes to endow them with unique biointerfacing capabilities that reduce opsonization, prolong systemic circulation, and improve tumor delivery through enhanced passive accumulation or homotypic targeting. This ensures a sufficient dose of photoresponsive nanoparticles arrives at tumor sites to enable their complete thermal ablation. This review summarizes the state-of-the-art in cell membrane camouflaged nanoparticles for photothermal cancer therapy and provides insights to the path forward for clinical translation.

Membrane-wrapped nanoparticles for nucleic acid delivery

There is an unmet need for carriers that can deliver nucleic acids (NAs) to cancer cells and tumors to perpetuate gene regulation and manage disease progression. Membrane-wrapped nanoparticles (NPs) can be loaded with exogenously designed nucleic acid cargoes, such as plasmid deoxyribonucleic acid (pDNA), messenger ribonucleic acid (mRNA), small interfering RNA (siRNA), microRNA (miRNA), and immunostimulatory CpG oligodeoxynucleotides (CpG ODNs), to mitigate challenges presented by NAs' undesirable negative charge, hydrophilicity, and relatively large size. By conjugating or encapsulating NAs within membrane-wrapped NPs, various physiological barriers can be overcome so that NAs experience increased blood circulation half-lives and enhanced accumulation in intended sites. This review discusses the status of membrane-wrapped NPs as NA delivery vehicles and their advancement in gene regulation for cancer management in vitro and in vivo. With continued development, membrane-wrapped NPs have great potential as future clinical tools to treat cancer and other diseases with a known genetic basis.

Stem cell membrane, stem cell-derived exosomes and hybrid stem cell camouflaged nanoparticles: A promising biomimetic nanoplatforms for cancer theranostics

Nanomedicine research has advanced dramatically in recent decades. Nonetheless, traditional nanomedicine faces significant obstacles such as the low concentration of the drug at target sites and accelerated removal of the drug from blood circulation. Various techniques of nanotechnology, including cell membrane coating, have been developed to address these challenges and to improve targeted distribution and redcue cell membrane-mediated immunogenicity. Recently, stem cell (SC) membranes, owing to their immunosuppressive and regenerative properties, have grabbed attention as attractive therapeutic carriers for targeting specific tissues or organs. Bioengineering strategies that combine synthetic nanoparticles (NPs) with SC membranes, because of their homing potential and tumor tropism, have recently received a lot of publicity. Several laboratory experiments and clinical trials have indicated that the benefits of SC-based technologies are mostly related to the effects of SC-derived exosomes (SC-Exos). Exosomes are known as nano-sized extracellular vehicles (EVs) that deliver particular bioactive molecules for cell-to-cell communication. In this regard, SC-derived exosome membranes have recently been employed to improve the therapeutic capability of engineered drug delivery vehicles. Most recently, for further enhancing NPs' functionality, a new coating approach has been offered that combines membranes from two separate cells. These hybrid membrane delivery vehicles have paved the way for the development of biocompatible, high-efficiency, biomimetic NPs with varying hybrid capabilities that can overcome the drawbacks of present NP-based treatment techniques. This review explores stem cell membranes, SC-Exos, and hybrid SC-camouflaged NPs preparation methods and their importance in cancer therapy.

Nanovaccines with cell-derived components for cancer immunotherapy

Cancer nanovaccines as one of immunotherapeutic approaches are able to attack tumors by stimulating tumor-specific immunological responses. However, there still exist multiple challenges to be tackled for cancer nanovaccines to evoke potent antitumor immunity. Particularly, the administration of exogenous materials may cause the off-target immunotherapy responses. In recent years, biomimetic nanovaccines by using cell lysates, cell-derived nanovesicles, or extracted cell membranes as the functional components have received extensive attention. Such nanovaccines based on cell-derived components would show many unique advantages including inherent biocompatibility and the ability to trigger immune responses against a range of tumor-associated antigens. In this review article, we will introduce the recent research progresses of those cell-derived biomimetic nanovaccines for cancer immunotherapy, and discuss the perspectives and challenges associated with the future clinical translation of these emerging vaccine platforms.

Recent advances in cell membrane camouflage-based biosensing application

Cell membrane, a semi-permeable membrane composed of phospholipid bilayers, is a natural barrier to prevent extracellular substances from freely entering the cell. Cell membrane with selective permeability and fluidity ensures the relative stability of the intracellular environment and enables various biochemical reactions to smoothly operate in an orderly manner. Inspired by the natural composition and transport process, various cell membranes and synthetic bionic films as the mimics of cell membranes have emerged as appealing camouflage materials for biosensing applications. The membranes are devoted to surface modification and substance delivery, and realize the detection or in situ analysis of multiple biomarkers, such as glucose, nucleic acids, virus, and circulating tumor cells. In this review, we summarize the recent advances in cell membrane camouflage-based biosensing applications, mainly focusing on the use of the membranes extracted from natural cells (e.g., blood cells and cancer cells) as well as biomimetic membranes. Materials and surfaces camouflaged with cell membranes are shown to have superior stability and biocompatibility as well as intrinsic properties of original cells, which greatly facilitate their use in biosensing. In specific, camouflage with blood cell membranes bestows low immunogenicity and prolonged blood circulation time, camouflage with cancer cell membranes provides homologous targeting ability, and camouflage with biomimetic membranes endows considerable plasticity for functionalization. Further research is expected to focus on the deeper understanding of cell-specific properties of membranes and the exploration of hybrid membranes, which might provide new development opportunities for cell membrane camouflage-based biosensing application.

Macrophage-biomimetic porous Se@SiO2 nanocomposites for dual modal immunotherapy against inflammatory osteolysis

Background

Inflammatory osteolysis, a major complication of total joint replacement surgery, can cause prosthesis failure and necessitate revision surgery. Macrophages are key effector immune cells in inflammatory responses, but excessive M1-polarization of dysfunctional macrophages leads to the secretion of proinflammatory cytokines and severe loss of bone tissue. Here, we report the development of macrophage-biomimetic porous SiO₂-coated ultrasmall Se particles (porous Se@SiO₂ nanospheres) to manage inflammatory osteolysis.

Results

Macrophage membrane-coated porous Se@SiO₂ nanospheres(M-Se@SiO₂) attenuated lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced inflammatory osteolysis via a dual-immunomodulatory effect. As macrophage membrane decoys, these nanoparticles reduced endotoxin levels and neutralized proinflammatory cytokines. Moreover, the release of Se could induce macrophage polarization toward the anti-inflammatory M2-phenotype. These effects were mediated via the inhibition of p65, p38, and extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) signaling. Additionally, the immune environment created by M-Se@SiO₂ reduced the inhibition of osteogenic differentiation caused by proinflammation cytokines, as confirmed through in vitro and in vivo experiments.

Conclusion

Our findings suggest that M-Se@SiO₂ have an immunomodulatory role in LPS-induced inflammation and bone remodeling, which demonstrates that M-Se@SiO₂ are a promising engineered nanoplatform for the treatment of osteolysis occurring after arthroplasty.

Graphical Abstract

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12951-021-01128-4.

Long-Residence Pneumonia Vaccine Developed Using PEG-Grafted Hybrid Nanovesicles from Cell Membrane Fusion of Mycoplasma and IFN-γ-Primed Macrophages

CD8⁺ T cell responses play a critical regulatory role in protection against mycoplasma infection-related respiratory diseases. Nanovesicles derived from cell membranes have been shown to induce CD8⁺ T cell responses. Moreover, the short residence time of mycoplasma membrane-related vaccines in local lymph nodes limits the efficacy of current mycoplasma vaccines. Here, a long-residence pneumonia vaccine is developed using nanovesicles prepared by cell membrane fusion of Mycoplasma hyopneumoniae and interferon-γ (IFN-γ   )-primed macrophages, which are grafted with polyethylene glycol to increase residence time in the lymph nodes. Upregulation of intercellular adhesion molecule-1 (ICAM-1) on the membrane of IFN-γ-primed macrophages increases the targeting of the hybrid nanovesicle vaccine to the local lymph nodes, with increased CD8⁺ T cell activation. A mechanistic study reveals that CD8⁺ T cell activation is achieved via a pathway involving upregulation of C-C motif chemokine ligand 2/3 expression by E26 transformation-specific sequences, followed by increased immune-stimulatory activity of dendritic cells. In vivo, prophylactic testing reveals that the hybrid nanovesicle vaccine triggers a long-term immune response, as evidenced by a memory CD8⁺ T cell response against mycoplasma infection. The current study provides a new design strategy for mycoplasma vaccines that involves a hybrid method using biological sources and artificial modification.

Preparation of carbon dots-based nanoparticles and their research of bioimaging and targeted antitumor therapy

Carbon dots (CDs) are nanomaterials with excellent photoluminescence property, usually used in the field of bioimaging tumor cells. However, its practical applicability in cancer therapeutics is limited by CDs' insensitive surface properties to complicated tumor microenvironment in vivo. Herein, a new type of innovative biomimetic nanoparticles has been formed with HeLa cell membranes (CM) and multifunctional CDs containing antitumor and bioimaging activities. The CDs are prepared by a facile one-step microwave-assisted procedure. Gallic acid is used as carbon resource and antitumor active molecule. Gelatin is treated as the nitrogen resource. Citric acid monohydrate is used as the auxiliary carbon source and the Hela CM is used for tumor targeting. A series of fluorescence analyses has proved its homotypic targeting and ability of diagnosis. Besides, in vitro and in vivo antitumor experiments further indicate their better antitumor efficiency. The findings show the totally new nanoparticles' feasibilities of dealing with the clinical therapy problems as well as applying for the integration of diagnosis and targeting therapy.

Hybrid Membrane-Coated Biomimetic Nanoparticles (HM@BNPs): A Multifunctional Nanomaterial for Biomedical Applications

The application of nanoparticles in the diagnosis and treatment of diseases has undergone different developmental stages, but phagocytosis and nonspecific distribution have been the main factors restricting the transformation of nanobased drugs into clinical practice. In the past decade, the design of membrane-coated nanoparticles has gained increasing attention. It is hoped that the combination of the cell membrane's natural biological properties and the functional integration of synthetic nanoparticle systems can compensate for the shortage of traditional nanoparticles. The membrane coating gives the nanoparticles unique biological functions such as immune evasion and targeting capability. However, when the encapsulation of monotypic membranes does not meet the diverse demands of biomedicine, the combination of different cell membranes may offer more possibilities. In this review, the composition, preparation, and advantages of biomimetic nanoparticles coated with hybrid cell membranes are summarized, and the applications of hybrid membrane-coated biomimetic nanoparticles (HM@BNPs) in drug delivery, phototherapy, liquid biopsy, tumor vaccines, immune therapy, and detoxification are reviewed. Finally, the current challenges and opportunities with regard to HM@BNPs are discussed.

Biomimetic Nanoemulsion for Synergistic Photodynamic-Immunotherapy Against Hypoxic Breast Tumor

Photodynamic therapy (PDT) is commonly used as an "in situ vaccine" to enhance the response rate of PD-1/PD-L1 antibodies. Unfortunately, the high cost and adverse effects of these antibodies, and the hypoxic state of solid tumors limits the efficacy of synergistic photodynamic-immunotherapy. Here, we developed a biomimetic nanoemulsion camouflaged with a PD-1-expressing cell membrane for synergistic photodynamic-immunotherapy against hypoxic breast tumors. The perfluorocarbon of the nanoemulsion could provide oxygen as the source of PDT against hypoxic tumors. Moreover, co-delivering a photosensitizer and the PD-1 protein (substituting for a PD-L1 antibody) achieves the synergy effect of PDT and immunotherapy. Synergistic photodynamic-immunotherapy completely inhibited primary and distant subcutaneous 4T1 tumors, mechanistically by boosting the maturation of dendritic cells and tumor infiltration of cytotoxic T lymphocytes.