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Koomson DA, Nicholson JH, Brogan APS, Aldous L. Re-assessing viologens for modern bio-electrocatalysis. Chem Sci 2024; 15:9325-9332. [PMID: 38903224 PMCID: PMC11186337 DOI: 10.1039/d4sc02431a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/12/2024] [Accepted: 05/16/2024] [Indexed: 06/22/2024] Open
Abstract
Viologens, 1,1'-disubstituted-4,4'-bipyridinium salts, are organic redox species that can be used in place of NADPH as mediators for redox enzymes. In this study, using the reduction of oxidized glutathione by glutathione reductase as a model system, a rationally designed library of viologens covering a range of polarities and functional groups were explored as electron transfer mediators for bio-electrocatalysis. Through a series of electrochemical investigations, the reduction potential was found to be the primary determining factor for electron transfer between the viologen and enzyme. Through enhancing the solubility of viologen such that the fully reduced state remained soluble, we demonstrate a much-widened window of useable viologen potentials. In doing so, we describe for the first time a highly efficient electron transfer to a flavoenzyme promoting the catalytic reaction in the absence of co-factors. As such, our study provides a platform for broadening the scope for using viologens as mediating agents for electrochemically-driven enzymatic processes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Desmond Ato Koomson
- Department of Chemistry, King's College London Britannia House London SE1 1DB UK
| | - Jake H Nicholson
- Department of Chemistry, King's College London Britannia House London SE1 1DB UK
| | - Alex P S Brogan
- Department of Chemistry, King's College London Britannia House London SE1 1DB UK
| | - Leigh Aldous
- Department of Chemistry, King's College London Britannia House London SE1 1DB UK
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Improving the Enzymatic Cascade of Reactions for the Reduction of CO2 to CH3OH in Water: From Enzymes Immobilization Strategies to Cofactor Regeneration and Cofactor Suppression. Molecules 2022; 27:molecules27154913. [PMID: 35956865 PMCID: PMC9370104 DOI: 10.3390/molecules27154913] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/10/2022] [Revised: 07/29/2022] [Accepted: 07/29/2022] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
The need to decrease the concentration of CO2 in the atmosphere has led to the search for strategies to reuse such molecule as a building block for chemicals and materials or a source of carbon for fuels. The enzymatic cascade of reactions that produce the reduction of CO2 to methanol seems to be a very attractive way of reusing CO2; however, it is still far away from a potential industrial application. In this review, a summary was made of all the advances that have been made in research on such a process, particularly on two salient points: enzyme immobilization and cofactor regeneration. A brief overview of the process is initially given, with a focus on the enzymes and the cofactor, followed by a discussion of all the advances that have been made in research, on the two salient points reported above. In particular, the enzymatic regeneration of NADH is compared to the chemical, electrochemical, and photochemical conversion of NAD+ into NADH. The enzymatic regeneration, while being the most used, has several drawbacks in the cost and life of enzymes that suggest attempting alternative solutions. The reduction in the amount of NADH used (by converting CO2 electrochemically into formate) or even the substitution of NADH with less expensive mimetic molecules is discussed in the text. Such an approach is part of the attempt made to take stock of the situation and identify the points on which work still needs to be conducted to reach an exploitation level of the entire process.
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Nikoloudakis E, López-Duarte I, Charalambidis G, Ladomenou K, Ince M, Coutsolelos AG. Porphyrins and phthalocyanines as biomimetic tools for photocatalytic H 2 production and CO 2 reduction. Chem Soc Rev 2022; 51:6965-7045. [PMID: 35686606 DOI: 10.1039/d2cs00183g] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
The increasing energy demand and environmental issues caused by the over-exploitation of fossil fuels render the need for renewable, clean, and environmentally benign energy sources unquestionably urgent. The zero-emission energy carrier, H2 is an ideal alternative to carbon-based fuels especially when it is generated photocatalytically from water. Additionally, the photocatalytic conversion of CO2 into chemical fuels can reduce the CO2 emissions and have a positive environmental and economic impact. Inspired by natural photosynthesis, plenty of artificial photocatalytic schemes based on porphyrinoids have been investigated. This review covers the recent advances in photocatalytic H2 production and CO2 reduction systems containing porphyrin or phthalocyanine derivatives. The unique properties of porphyrinoids enable their utilization both as chromophores and as catalysts. The homogeneous photocatalytic systems are initially described, presenting the various approaches for the improvement of photosensitizing activity and the enhancement of catalytic performance at the molecular level. On the other hand, for the development of the heterogeneous systems, numerous methods were employed such as self-assembled supramolecular porphyrinoid nanostructures, construction of organic frameworks, combination with 2D materials and adsorption onto semiconductors. The dye sensitization on semiconductors opened the way for molecular-based dye-sensitized photoelectrochemical cells (DSPECs) devices based on porphyrins and phthalocyanines. The research in photocatalytic systems as discussed herein remains challenging since there are still many limitations making them unfeasible to be used at a large scale application before finding a large-scale application.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emmanouil Nikoloudakis
- University of Crete, Department of Chemistry, Laboratory of Bioinorganic Chemistry, Voutes Campus, Heraklion, Crete, Greece.
| | - Ismael López-Duarte
- Departamento de Química en Ciencias Farmacéuticas, Universidad Complutense de Madrid, 28040 Madrid, Spain
| | - Georgios Charalambidis
- University of Crete, Department of Chemistry, Laboratory of Bioinorganic Chemistry, Voutes Campus, Heraklion, Crete, Greece.
| | - Kalliopi Ladomenou
- International Hellenic University, Department of Chemistry, Laboratory of Inorganic Chemistry, Agios Loucas, 65404, Kavala Campus, Greece.
| | - Mine Ince
- Department of Natural and Mathematical Sciences, Faculty of Engineering, Tarsus University, Mersin, Turkey.
| | - Athanassios G Coutsolelos
- University of Crete, Department of Chemistry, Laboratory of Bioinorganic Chemistry, Voutes Campus, Heraklion, Crete, Greece. .,Institute of Electronic Structure and Laser (IESL) Foundation for Research and Technology - Hellas (FORTH), Vassilika Vouton, Heraklion, Crete, Greece
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Delawder AO, Palmquist MS, Dorsainvil JM, Colley ND, Saak TM, Gruschka MC, Li X, Li L, Zhang Y, Barnes JC. Iterative step-growth synthesis and degradation of unimolecular polyviologens under mild conditions. Chem Commun (Camb) 2022; 58:1358-1361. [PMID: 34989373 DOI: 10.1039/d1cc06912h] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
An iterative step-growth addition method was used to expedite the gram-scale synthesis of main-chain polyviologens by several days, while also producing the longest main-chain polyviologen (i.e., 26 viologen subunits) reported to date. Facile degradation using inorganic and organic aqueous bases was also demonstrated for a representative oligoviologen (6V-Me·12Cl), a polyviologen (26V-Me·52Cl), and oligoviologen-crosslinked hydrogels.
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Affiliation(s)
- Abigail O Delawder
- Department of Chemistry, Washington University in St. Louis, St. Louis, MO 63130, USA.
| | - Mark S Palmquist
- Department of Chemistry, Washington University in St. Louis, St. Louis, MO 63130, USA.
| | - Jovelt M Dorsainvil
- Department of Chemistry, Washington University in St. Louis, St. Louis, MO 63130, USA.
| | - Nathan D Colley
- Department of Chemistry, Washington University in St. Louis, St. Louis, MO 63130, USA.
| | - Tiana M Saak
- Department of Chemistry, Washington University in St. Louis, St. Louis, MO 63130, USA.
| | - Max C Gruschka
- Department of Chemistry, Washington University in St. Louis, St. Louis, MO 63130, USA.
| | - Xuesong Li
- Department of Chemistry, Washington University in St. Louis, St. Louis, MO 63130, USA.
| | - Lei Li
- Department of Chemistry, Washington University in St. Louis, St. Louis, MO 63130, USA.
| | - Yipei Zhang
- Department of Chemistry, Washington University in St. Louis, St. Louis, MO 63130, USA.
| | - Jonathan C Barnes
- Department of Chemistry, Washington University in St. Louis, St. Louis, MO 63130, USA.
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Nasrallah H, Lyu P, Maurin G, El-Roz M. Highly efficient CO2 reduction under visible-light on non-covalent Ru⋯Re assembled photocatalyst: Evidence on the electron transfer mechanism. J Catal 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jcat.2021.09.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
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Electrochemically driven efficient enzymatic conversion of CO2 to formic acid with artificial cofactors. J CO2 UTIL 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jcou.2021.101679] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
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