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Golin Almeida T, Martí C, Kurtén T, Zádor J, Johansen SL. Theoretical analysis of the OH-initiated atmospheric oxidation reactions of imidazole. Phys Chem Chem Phys 2024; 26:23570-23587. [PMID: 39106054 DOI: 10.1039/d4cp02103g] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 08/07/2024]
Abstract
Imidazoles are present in Earth's atmosphere in both the gas-phase and in aerosol particles, and have been implicated in the formation of brown carbon aerosols. The gas-phase oxidation of imidazole (C3N2H4) by hydroxyl radicals has been shown to be preferentially initiated via OH-addition to position C5, producing the 5-hydroxyimidazolyl radical adduct. However, the fate of this adduct upon reaction with O2 in the atmospheric gas-phase is currently unknown. We employed an automated approach to investigate the reaction mechanism and kinetics of imidazole's OH-initiated gas-phase oxidation, in the presence of O2 and NOx. The explored mechanism included reactions available to first-generation RO2 radicals, as well as alkoxyl radicals produced from RO2 + NO reactions. Product distributions were obtained by assembling and solving a master equation, under conditions relevant to the Earth's atmosphere. Our calculations show a complex, branched reaction mechanism, which nevertheless converges to yield two major closed-shell products: 4H-imidazol-4-ol (4H-4ol) and N,N'-diformylformamidine (FMF). At 298 K and 1 atm, we estimate the yields of 4H-4ol and FMF from imidazole oxidation initiated via OH-addition to position C5 to be 34 : 66, 12 : 85 and 2 : 95 under 10 ppt, 100 ppt and 1 ppb of NO respectively. This work also revealed O2-migration pathways between the α-N-imino peroxyl radical isomers. This reaction channel is fast for the first-generation RO2 radicals, and may be important during the atmospheric oxidation of other unsaturated organic nitrogen compounds as well.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas Golin Almeida
- Department of Chemistry, University of Helsinki, Helsinki 00014, Finland.
- Institute for Atmospheric and Earth System Research/Chemistry, University of Helsinki, Helsinki 00014, Finland
| | - Carles Martí
- Combustion Research Facility, Sandia National Laboratories, Livermore 94550, California, USA.
| | - Theo Kurtén
- Department of Chemistry, University of Helsinki, Helsinki 00014, Finland.
- Institute for Atmospheric and Earth System Research/Chemistry, University of Helsinki, Helsinki 00014, Finland
| | - Judit Zádor
- Combustion Research Facility, Sandia National Laboratories, Livermore 94550, California, USA.
| | - Sommer L Johansen
- Combustion Research Facility, Sandia National Laboratories, Livermore 94550, California, USA.
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2
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Abdel-Rahman MA, Shiroudi A, Czub J, Zhao H. Screening Stability, Thermochemistry, and Chemical Kinetics of 3-Hydroxybutanoic Acid as a Bifunctional Biodiesel Additive. J Phys Chem A 2024; 128:4068-4082. [PMID: 38728207 PMCID: PMC11129312 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jpca.4c01338] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/01/2024] [Revised: 04/25/2024] [Accepted: 05/01/2024] [Indexed: 05/12/2024]
Abstract
The thermo-kinetic aspects of 3-hydroxybutyric acid (3-HBA) pyrolysis in the gas phase were investigated using density functional theory (DFT), specifically the M06-2X theoretical level in conjunction with the cc-pVTZ basis set. The obtained data were compared with benchmark CBS-QB3 results. The degradation mechanism was divided into 16 pathways, comprising 6 complex fissions and 10 barrierless reactions. Energy profiles were calculated and supplemented with computations of rate coefficients and branching ratios over the temperature range of 600-1700 K at a pressure of 1 bar using transition state theory (TST) and Rice-Ramsperger-Kassel-Marcus (RRKM) methods. Thermodynamics results indicated the presence of six stable conformers within a 4 kcal mol-1 energy range. The estimated chemical kinetics results suggested that TST and RRKM approaches are comparable, providing confidence in our calculations. The branching ratio analysis reveals that the dehydration reaction pathway leading to the formation of H2O and CH3CH═CHCO2H dominates entirely at T ≤ 650 K. At these temperatures, there is a minor contribution from the simple homolytic bond fission reaction, yielding related radicals [CH3•CHOH + •CH2CO2H]. However, at T ≥ 700 K, this reaction becomes the primary decomposition route. At T = 1700 K, there is a minor involvement of a reaction pathway resulting in the formation of CH3CH(OH)•CH2 + •CHO(OH) with an approximate contribution of 16%, and a reaction leading to [•CH3 + •CH2OHCH2CO2H] with around 9%.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Abolfazl Shiroudi
- Department of Physical Chemistry, Gdańsk University of Technology, Narutowicza 11/12, Gdańsk 80-233, Poland
- BioTechMed
Center, Gdańsk University of Technology, Gdańsk 80-233, Poland
| | - Jacek Czub
- Department of Physical Chemistry, Gdańsk University of Technology, Narutowicza 11/12, Gdańsk 80-233, Poland
- BioTechMed
Center, Gdańsk University of Technology, Gdańsk 80-233, Poland
| | - Hao Zhao
- College
of Engineering, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China
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Shiroudi A, Czub J, Altarawneh M. Chemical Investigation on the Mechanism and Kinetics of the Atmospheric Degradation Reaction of Trichlorofluoroethene by OH⋅ and Its Subsequent Fate in the Presence of O 2 /NOx. Chemphyschem 2024; 25:e202300665. [PMID: 37983906 DOI: 10.1002/cphc.202300665] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/17/2023] [Revised: 11/17/2023] [Accepted: 11/20/2023] [Indexed: 11/22/2023]
Abstract
The M06-2X/6-311++G(d,p) level of theory was used to examine the degradation of Trichlorofluoroethene (TCFE) initiated by OH⋅ radicals. Additionally, the coupled-cluster single-double with triple perturbative [CCSD(T)] method was employed to refine the single-point energies using the complete basis set extrapolation approach. The results indicated that OH-addition is the dominant pathway. OH⋅ adds to both the C1 and C2 carbons, resulting in the formation of the C(OH)Cl2 -⋅CClF and ⋅CCl2 -C(OH)ClF species. The associated barrier heights were determined to be 1.11 and -0.99 kcal mol-1 , respectively. Furthermore, the energetic and thermodynamic parameters show that pathway 1 exhibits greater exothermicity and exergonicity compared to pathway 2, with differences of 8.11 and 8.21 kcal mol-1 , correspondingly. The primary pathway involves OH addition to the C2 position, with a rate constant of 6.2×10-13 cm3 molecule-1 sec-1 at 298 K. This analysis served to estimate the atmospheric lifetime, along with the photochemical ozone creation potential (POCP) and ozone depletion potential (ODP). It yielded an atmospheric lifetime of 8.49 days, an ODP of 4.8×10-4 , and a POCP value of 2.99, respectively. Radiative forcing efficiencies were also estimated at the M06-2X/6-311++G(d,p) level. Global warming potentials (GWPs) were calculated for 20, 100, and 500 years, resulting in values of 9.61, 2.61, and 0.74, respectively. TCFE is not expected to make a significant contribution to the radiative forcing of climate change. The results obtained from the time-dependent density functional theory (TDDFT) indicated that TCFE and its energized adducts are unable to photolysis under sunlight in the UV and visible spectrum. Secondary reactions involve the [TCFE-OH-O2 ]⋅ peroxy radical, leading subsequently to the [TCFE-OH-O]⋅ alkoxy radical. It was found that the alkoxy radical resulting from the peroxy radical can lead to the formation of phosgene (COCl2 ) and carbonyl chloride fluoride (CClFO), with phosgene being the primary product.
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Affiliation(s)
- Abolfazl Shiroudi
- Department of Physical Chemistry, Gdańsk University of Technology, Narutowicza 11/12, Gdańsk, 80-233, Poland
- BioTechMed Center, Gdańsk University of Technology, Gdańsk, 80-233, Poland
| | - Jacek Czub
- Department of Physical Chemistry, Gdańsk University of Technology, Narutowicza 11/12, Gdańsk, 80-233, Poland
- BioTechMed Center, Gdańsk University of Technology, Gdańsk, 80-233, Poland
| | - Mohammednoor Altarawneh
- United Arab Emirates University, Department of Chemical and Petroleum Engineering, Sheikh Khalifa bin Zayed Street, Al-Ain, 15551, United Arab Emirates
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Bruce FO, Li Y. Probing the Thermochemistry Properties and Rate Kinetics of Trimethyl Phosphate (TMP): An H-Atom Abstraction (HAA) Reactions Perspective. ACS OMEGA 2023; 8:47134-47145. [PMID: 38107939 PMCID: PMC10720016 DOI: 10.1021/acsomega.3c07137] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/18/2023] [Revised: 11/08/2023] [Accepted: 11/10/2023] [Indexed: 12/19/2023]
Abstract
Trimethyl Phosphate (TMP), an organophosphorus liquid compound, is valued for its versatile qualities and applications in various fields. In modern chemical research and industry, processes involving Trimethyl Phosphate are optimized for minimal negative environmental impact, and scientific advancement is driven by adherence to stringent regulations to provide sustainable solutions and resource preservation. Thermochemical insights enhance our understanding of monomer incorporation, initiation, and propagation energetics. This study comprehensively investigates the thermochemistry and rate kinetics that govern H-atom abstractions in TMP through advanced computational techniques. The theoretical framework encompasses methodologies for conducting conformer searches, exploring transition states, and performing energy calculations. This study calculates rate constants for eight H-atom abstraction reactions involving TMP with stable species, O2 (oxygen), H (hydrogen), and radicals [ȮH (hydroxyl), ĊH3 (methyl), CH3Ȯ (methoxy), HȮ2 (hydroperoxyl), ṄH2 (amino), and ĊN (cyano)], and further analogies are related to barrier heights. Bond dissociation energies are also determined, highlighting TMP's susceptibility to various reaction pathways. The discussion and findings elucidate the need for further experimental validation for practical applications of TMP in chemical synthesis, combustion, flame-retardant technologies, environmental processes, and pharmaceutical research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Frederick
Nii Ofei Bruce
- National
Key Laboratory of Solid Rocket Propulsion, School of Astronautics, Northwestern Polytechnical University, Xi’an 710072, China
- Science
and Technology on Combustion, Internal Flow and Thermostructure Laboratory,
School of Astronautics, Northwestern Polytechnical
University, Xi’an 710072, China
- Shenzhen
Research Institute of Northwestern Polytechnical University, Shenzhen 518057, China
- Department
of Computational Chemistry, Nesvard Institute
of Molecular Sciences, Accra 00000, Ghana
| | - Yang Li
- National
Key Laboratory of Solid Rocket Propulsion, School of Astronautics, Northwestern Polytechnical University, Xi’an 710072, China
- Science
and Technology on Combustion, Internal Flow and Thermostructure Laboratory,
School of Astronautics, Northwestern Polytechnical
University, Xi’an 710072, China
- Shenzhen
Research Institute of Northwestern Polytechnical University, Shenzhen 518057, China
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Nguyen LT, Hoang GHL, Tran UNP, Mai TVT, Nguyen HD, Huynh LK. Mechanistic and Kinetic Insights into OH-Initiated Atmospheric Oxidation of Hymexazol: A Computational Study. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2023; 57:15138-15152. [PMID: 37782022 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.2c03095] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/03/2023]
Abstract
Hymexazol is a volatile fungicide widely used in agriculture, causing its abundance in the atmosphere; thus, its atmospheric fate and conversion are of great importance when assessing its environmental impacts. Herein, we report a theoretical kinetic mechanism for the oxidation of hymexazol by OH radicals, as well as the subsequent reactions of its main products with O2 and then with NO by using the Rice-Ramsperger-Kassel-Marcus-based Master equation kinetic model on the potential energy surface explored at the ROCBS-QB3//M06-2X/aug-cc-pVTZ level. The predicted total rate constants ktotal(T, P) for the reaction between hymexazol and OH radicals show excellent agreement with scarcely available experimental values (e.g., 3.6 × 10-12 vs (4.4 ± 0.8) × 10-12 cm3/molecule/s at T = 300 K and P = 760 Torr); thus, the calculated kinetic parameters can be confidently used for modeling/simulation of N-heterocycle-related applications under atmospheric and even combustion conditions. The model shows that 3,4-dihydroxy-5-methyl-4,5-dihydro-1,2-oxazol-5-yl (IM2), 3,5-dihydroxy-5-methyl-4,5-dihydro-1,2-oxazol-4-yl (IM3), and (3-hydroxy-1,2-oxazol-5-yl)methyl (P8) are the main primary intermediates, which form the main secondary species of (3,4-dihydroxy-5-methyl-4,5-dihydro-1,2-oxazol-5-yl)dioxidanyl (IM4), (3,5-dihydroxy-5-methyl-4,5-dihydro-1,2-oxazol-4-yl)dioxidanyl (IM7), and ([(3-hydroxy-1,2-oxazol-5-yl)methyl]dioxidanyl (IM11), respectively, through the reactions with O2. The main secondary species then can react with NO to form the main tertiary species, namely, (3,4-dihydroxy-5-methyl-4,5-dihydro-1,2-oxazol-5-yl)oxidanyl (P19), (3,5-dihydroxy-5-methyl-4,5-dihydro-1,2-oxazol-4-yl)oxidanyl (P21), and [(3-hydroxy-1,2-oxazol-5-yl)methyl]oxidanyl (P23), respectively, together with NO2. Besides, hymexazol could be a persistent organic pollutant in the troposphere due to its calculated half-life τ1/2 of 13.7-68.1 h, depending on the altitude.
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Affiliation(s)
- Loc T Nguyen
- Vietnam National University, Ho Chi Minh City, Quarter 6, Linh Trung Ward, Thu Duc City, Ho Chi Minh City 700000, Vietnam
- School of Chemical and Environmental Engineering, International University, Quarter 6, Linh Trung Ward, Thu Duc City, Ho Chi Minh City 700000, Vietnam
| | - Gia-Huy L Hoang
- Vietnam National University, Ho Chi Minh City, Quarter 6, Linh Trung Ward, Thu Duc City, Ho Chi Minh City 700000, Vietnam
- School of Chemical and Environmental Engineering, International University, Quarter 6, Linh Trung Ward, Thu Duc City, Ho Chi Minh City 700000, Vietnam
| | - Uyen N-P Tran
- Vietnam National University, Ho Chi Minh City, Quarter 6, Linh Trung Ward, Thu Duc City, Ho Chi Minh City 700000, Vietnam
- School of Chemical and Environmental Engineering, International University, Quarter 6, Linh Trung Ward, Thu Duc City, Ho Chi Minh City 700000, Vietnam
| | - Tam V-T Mai
- Vietnam National University, Ho Chi Minh City, Quarter 6, Linh Trung Ward, Thu Duc City, Ho Chi Minh City 700000, Vietnam
- Molecular Science and Nano-Materials Lab, Institute for Computational Science and Technology, SBI Building, Quang Trung Software City, Tan Chanh Hiep Ward, Thu Duc City, Ho Chi Minh City 700000, Vietnam
- University of Science, 227 Nguyen Van Cu, Ward 4, District 5, Ho Chi Minh City 700000, Vietnam
| | - Huy D Nguyen
- Vietnam National University, Ho Chi Minh City, Quarter 6, Linh Trung Ward, Thu Duc City, Ho Chi Minh City 700000, Vietnam
- University of Science, 227 Nguyen Van Cu, Ward 4, District 5, Ho Chi Minh City 700000, Vietnam
| | - Lam K Huynh
- Vietnam National University, Ho Chi Minh City, Quarter 6, Linh Trung Ward, Thu Duc City, Ho Chi Minh City 700000, Vietnam
- School of Chemical and Environmental Engineering, International University, Quarter 6, Linh Trung Ward, Thu Duc City, Ho Chi Minh City 700000, Vietnam
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Shojaei SR, Shiroudi A, Abdel-Rahman MA. Computational studies on thermo-kinetics aspects of pyrolysis of isopropyl acetate and its methyl, bromide and hydroxyl derivatives. Heliyon 2022; 8:e11274. [PMID: 36339763 PMCID: PMC9626549 DOI: 10.1016/j.heliyon.2022.e11274] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/08/2022] [Revised: 10/05/2022] [Accepted: 10/21/2022] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
The gas-phase decomposition kinetics of isopropyl acetate (IPA) and its methyl, bromide and hydroxyl derivatives into the corresponding acid and propene were investigated using density functional theory (DFT) with the ωB97XD and M06-2x functionals, as well as the benchmark CBS-QB3 composite method. Transition state theory (TST) and RRKM theory calculations of rate constants under atmospheric pressure and in the fall-off regime were used to supplement the measured energy profiles. The results show that the formation of propene and bromoacetic acid is the most dominant pathway at the CBS-QB3 composite method, both kinetically and thermodynamically. There was a good agreement with experimental results. Pressures greater than 0.01 bar, corresponding to larger barrier heights are insufficient to ensure saturation of the measured rate coefficient when compared to the RRKM kinetic rates. Natural bond orbitals (NBO) charges, bond orders, bond indices, and synchronicity parameters all point to the considered pathways taking place via a homogenous, first-order concerted, as well as an asynchronous mechanism involving a non-planar cyclic six-membered transition state. The calculated data exhibit that the elongation of the Cα-O bond length and subsequent polarization of the Cα +δ…O-δ bond is the rate-determining step of the considered reactions in the cyclic transition state, which appears to be involved in this type of reaction.
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Affiliation(s)
- S.H. Reza Shojaei
- Department of Physics, Faculty of Science, Sahand University of Technology, Tabriz, 51335-1996, Iran
- X-LAB, Hasselt University, Agoralaan, Diepenbeek, 3590, Belgium
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Abdel-Rahman MA, Shiroudi A, Kaya S, El-Nahas AM. Theoretical investigations on the unimolecular decomposition mechanisms of isopropyl acetate. J Mol Struct 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.molstruc.2022.133006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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Rashidiani M, Zahedi E, Zare K, Seif A. Theoretical investigation on the mechanism and kinetics of the OH•‒initiated atmospheric degradation of p-chloroaniline via OH•‒addition and hydrogen abstraction pathways. J Mol Graph Model 2022; 114:108198. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jmgm.2022.108198] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/19/2021] [Revised: 04/08/2022] [Accepted: 04/11/2022] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
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First-principle kinetic studies of unimolecular pyrolysis of isopropyl esters as biodiesel surrogates. Theor Chem Acc 2021. [DOI: 10.1007/s00214-021-02800-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
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10
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Al-Otaibi JS, Mahmoud MAM, Almuqrin AH, El-Gogary TM, Abdel-Rahman MA, El-Nahas AM. Ab initio-based kinetics of hydrogen atom abstraction from methyl propionate by H and CH3 radicals: a biodiesel model. Struct Chem 2021. [DOI: 10.1007/s11224-021-01746-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
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Abdel-Rahman MA, Shibl MF, El-Nahas AM, Abdel-Azeim S, El-demerdash SH, Al-Hashimi N. Mechanistic insights of the degradation of an O-anisidine carcinogenic pollutant initiated by OH radical attack: theoretical investigations. NEW J CHEM 2021. [DOI: 10.1039/d0nj06248k] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
O-Anisidine (O-AND) is one of the amino organic compounds that harm human health, and is considered as a carcinogenic chemical.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Mohamed F. Shibl
- Department of Chemistry and Earth Sciences
- College of Arts and Sciences
- Qatar University
- Doha
- Qatar
| | - Ahmed M. El-Nahas
- Chemistry Department
- Faculty of Science
- Menoufia University
- Shebin El-Kom 32512
- Egypt
| | - Safwat Abdel-Azeim
- Center for Integrative Petroleum Research (CIPR)
- College of Petroleum Engineering and Geosciences
- King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals (KFUPM)
- Dhahran 31261
- Saudi Arabia
| | | | - Nessreen Al-Hashimi
- Department of Chemistry and Earth Sciences
- College of Arts and Sciences
- Qatar University
- Doha
- Qatar
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Mai TVT, Huynh LK. Comment on “Atmospheric chemistry of oxazole: the mechanism and kinetic studies on oxidation reaction initiated by OH radicals” by A. Shiroudi, M. A. Abdel-Rahman, A. M. El-Nahas and M. Altarawneh, New J. Chem., 2021, 45, 2237. NEW J CHEM 2021. [DOI: 10.1039/d1nj01020d] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
The large kinetic discrepancy between computational and experimental studies is resolved using the rigorous stochastic RRKM-based master-equation rate model. Detailed mechanistic insights are also revealed to advance its related applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tam V.-T. Mai
- University of Science
- Ho Chi Minh City
- Ho Chi Minh City
- Vietnam
- Molecular Science and Nano-Materials Lab
| | - Lam K. Huynh
- Vietnam National University HoChiMinh City
- Quarter 6, Linh Trung Ward
- Ho Chi Minh City
- Vietnam
- International University
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Abdel-Rahman MA, El-Nahas AM, Simmie JM, Abdel-Azeim S, El-Demerdash SH, El-Meligy AB, Mahmoud MAM. A W1 computational study on the kinetics of initial pyrolysis of a biodiesel model: methyl propanoate. NEW J CHEM 2021. [DOI: 10.1039/d1nj03636j] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
This work reports on the thermochemistry and kinetics of methyl propanoate (MePr) initial pyrolysis using the high ab initio multi-level composite W1 method over the temperature range 400–2000 K.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Ahmed M. El-Nahas
- Chemistry Department, Faculty of Science, Menoufia University, Shebin El-Kom, 32512, Egypt
| | - John M. Simmie
- School of Chemistry & Combustion Chemistry Centre, National University of Ireland, Galway, Ireland
| | - Safwat Abdel-Azeim
- Center for Integrative Petroleum Research (CIPR), College of Petroleum Engineering and Geosciences, King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals (KFUPM), Dhahran 31261, Saudi Arabia
| | | | - Asmaa B. El-Meligy
- Chemistry Department, Faculty of Science, Menoufia University, Shebin El-Kom, 32512, Egypt
| | - Mohamed A. M. Mahmoud
- Basic Sciences Department, Tanta Higher Institute of Engineering and Technology, Tanta 31511, Egypt
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