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Roy I, Krishnan S, Kabashin AV, Zavestovskaya IN, Prasad PN. Transforming Nuclear Medicine with Nanoradiopharmaceuticals. ACS NANO 2022; 16:5036-5061. [PMID: 35294165 DOI: 10.1021/acsnano.1c10550] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Nuclear medicine is expected to make major advances in cancer diagnosis and therapy; tumor-targeted radiopharmaceuticals preferentially eradicate tumors while causing minimal damage to healthy tissues. The current scope of nuclear medicine can be significantly expanded by integration with nanomedicine, which utilizes nanoparticles for cancer diagnosis and therapy by capitalizing on the increased surface area-to-volume ratio, the passive/active targeting ability and high loading capacity, the greater interaction cross section with biological tissues, the rich surface properties of nanomaterials, the facile decoration of nanomaterials with a plethora of functionalities, and the potential for multiplexing several functionalities within one construct. This review provides a comprehensive discussion of nuclear nanomedicine using tumor-targeted nanoparticles for cancer radiation therapy with either pre-embedded radionuclides or nonradioactive materials which can be extrinsically triggered using various external nuclear particle sources to produce in situ radioactivity. In addition, it describes the prospect of combining nuclear nanomedicine with other modalities to enable synergistically enhanced combination therapies. The review also discusses advances in the fabrication of radionuclides as well as describes laser ablation technologies for producing nanoradiopharmaceuticals, which combine the ease of production with exceptional purity and rapid biodegradability, along with additional imaging or therapeutic functionalities. From a practical standpoint, these attributes of nanoradiopharmaceuticals may provide distinct advantages in diagnostic/therapeutic sensitivity and specificity, imaging resolution, and scalability of turnkey platforms. Coupling image-guided targeted radiation therapy with the possibility of in situ activation of nanomaterials as well as combining with other therapeutic modalities using a multifunctional nanoplatform could herald an era of exciting technological and therapeutic advances to radically transform the landscape of nuclear medicine. The review concludes with a discussion of current challenges and presents the authors' views on future opportunities to stimulate further research in this rewarding field of high societal impact.
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Affiliation(s)
- Indrajit Roy
- Department of Chemistry, University of Delhi, Delhi 110007, India
| | - Sunil Krishnan
- Department of Radiation Oncology, Mayo Clinic Florida, Jacksonville, Florida 32224, United States
| | - Andrei V Kabashin
- Aix Marseille University, CNRS, LP3, Campus de Luminy - Case 917, 13288 Marseille, France
- MEPhI, Institute of Engineering Physics for Biomedicine (PhysBio), 115409 Moscow, Russia
| | - Irina N Zavestovskaya
- MEPhI, Institute of Engineering Physics for Biomedicine (PhysBio), 115409 Moscow, Russia
- Nuclear Physics and Astrophysics Department, LPI of RAS, 119991 Moscow, Russia
| | - Paras N Prasad
- MEPhI, Institute of Engineering Physics for Biomedicine (PhysBio), 115409 Moscow, Russia
- Department of Chemistry and Institute for Lasers, Photonics, and Biophotonics, University at Buffalo, The State University of New York, Buffalo, New York 14260, United States
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Qin X, Jiang H, Liu Y, Zhang H, Tian M. Radionuclide imaging of apoptosis for clinical application. Eur J Nucl Med Mol Imaging 2022; 49:1345-1359. [PMID: 34873639 PMCID: PMC8921127 DOI: 10.1007/s00259-021-05641-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/21/2021] [Accepted: 11/25/2021] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
Apoptosis was a natural, non-inflammatory, energy-dependent form of programmed cell death (PCD) that can be discovered in a variety of physiological and pathological processes. Based on its characteristic biochemical changes, a great number of apoptosis probes for single-photon emission computed tomography (SPECT) and positron emission tomography (PET) have been developed. Radionuclide imaging with these tracers were potential for the repetitive and selective detection of apoptotic cell death in vivo, without the need for invasive biopsy. In this review, we overviewed molecular mechanism and specific biochemical changes in apoptotic cells and summarized the existing tracers that have been used in clinical trials as well as their potentialities and limitations. Particularly, we highlighted the clinic applications of apoptosis imaging as diagnostic markers, early-response indicators, and prognostic predictors in multiple disease fields.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiyi Qin
- Department of Nuclear Medicine and PET Center, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Zhejiang University School of Medicine, 88 Jiefang Road, Hangzhou, 310009, Zhejiang, China
- Institute of Nuclear Medicine and Molecular Imaging of Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China
- Key Laboratory of Medical Molecular Imaging of Zhejiang Province, Hangzhou, China
| | - Han Jiang
- PET-CT Center, Fujian Medical University Union Hospital, Fuzhou, 350001, China
| | - Yu Liu
- Department of Nuclear Medicine and PET Center, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Zhejiang University School of Medicine, 88 Jiefang Road, Hangzhou, 310009, Zhejiang, China
- Institute of Nuclear Medicine and Molecular Imaging of Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China
- Key Laboratory of Medical Molecular Imaging of Zhejiang Province, Hangzhou, China
| | - Hong Zhang
- Department of Nuclear Medicine and PET Center, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Zhejiang University School of Medicine, 88 Jiefang Road, Hangzhou, 310009, Zhejiang, China.
- Institute of Nuclear Medicine and Molecular Imaging of Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China.
- Key Laboratory of Medical Molecular Imaging of Zhejiang Province, Hangzhou, China.
- College of Biomedical Engineering & Instrument Science, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China.
- Key Laboratory for Biomedical Engineering of Ministry of Education, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China.
| | - Mei Tian
- Department of Nuclear Medicine and PET Center, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Zhejiang University School of Medicine, 88 Jiefang Road, Hangzhou, 310009, Zhejiang, China.
- Institute of Nuclear Medicine and Molecular Imaging of Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China.
- Key Laboratory of Medical Molecular Imaging of Zhejiang Province, Hangzhou, China.
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Feng J, Li S, Zhang B, Duan N, Zhou R, Yan S, Elango J, Liu N, Wu W. FGFC1 Exhibits Anti-Cancer Activity via Inhibiting NF-κB Signaling Pathway in EGFR-Mutant NSCLC Cells. Mar Drugs 2022; 20:md20010076. [PMID: 35049931 PMCID: PMC8781927 DOI: 10.3390/md20010076] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/14/2021] [Revised: 01/07/2022] [Accepted: 01/10/2022] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
FGFC1, an active compound isolated from the culture of marine fungi Stachybotrys longispora FG216, elicits fibrinolytic, anti-oxidative, and anti-inflammatory activity. We have previously reported that FGFC1 inhibited the proliferation, migration, and invasion of the non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) cells in vitro. However, the precise mechanisms of FGFC1 on NSCLC and its anti-cancer activity in vivo remains unclear. Hence, this study was focused to investigate the effects and regulatory mechanisms of FGFC1 on two NSCLC cell lines, EGFR-mutant PC9 (ex19del) and EGFR wild-type H1299. Results suggested that FGFC1 significantly inhibited proliferation, colony formation, as well as triggered G0/G1 arrest and apoptosis of PC9 cells in a dose- and time-dependent manner, but no obvious inhibitory effects were observed in H1299 cells. Subsequently, transcriptome analysis revealed that FGFC1 significantly down-regulated 28 genes related to the NF-κB pathway, including IL-6, TNF-α, and ICAM-1 in the PC9 cells. We further confirmed that FGFC1 decreased the expression of protein p-IKKα/β, p-p65, p-IκB, IL-6, and TNF-α. Moreover, NF-κB inhibitor PDTC could strengthen the effects of FGFC1 on the expression of CDK4, Cyclin D1, cleaved-PARP-1, and cleaved-caspase-3 proteins, suggesting that the NF-κB pathway plays a major role in FGFC1-induced cell cycle arrest and apoptosis. Correspondingly, the nuclear translocation of p-p65 was also suppressed by FGFC1 in PC9 cells. Finally, the intraperitoneal injection of FGFC1 remarkably inhibited PC9 xenograft growth and decreased the expression of Ki-67, p-p65, IL-6, and TNF-α in tumors. Our results indicated that FGFC1 exerted anti-cancer activity in PC9 cells via inhibiting the NF-κB signaling pathway, providing a possibility for FGFC1 to be used as a lead compound for the treatment of NSCLC in the future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jingwen Feng
- Department of Marine Bio-Pharmacology, College of Food Science and Technology, Shanghai Ocean University, Shanghai 201306, China; (J.F.); (B.Z.); (N.D.); (R.Z.); (S.Y.); (J.E.)
| | - Songlin Li
- Research Centre of the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs on Environmental Ecology and Fish Nutrition, Shanghai Ocean University, Shanghai 201306, China;
| | - Bing Zhang
- Department of Marine Bio-Pharmacology, College of Food Science and Technology, Shanghai Ocean University, Shanghai 201306, China; (J.F.); (B.Z.); (N.D.); (R.Z.); (S.Y.); (J.E.)
| | - Namin Duan
- Department of Marine Bio-Pharmacology, College of Food Science and Technology, Shanghai Ocean University, Shanghai 201306, China; (J.F.); (B.Z.); (N.D.); (R.Z.); (S.Y.); (J.E.)
| | - Rui Zhou
- Department of Marine Bio-Pharmacology, College of Food Science and Technology, Shanghai Ocean University, Shanghai 201306, China; (J.F.); (B.Z.); (N.D.); (R.Z.); (S.Y.); (J.E.)
| | - Shike Yan
- Department of Marine Bio-Pharmacology, College of Food Science and Technology, Shanghai Ocean University, Shanghai 201306, China; (J.F.); (B.Z.); (N.D.); (R.Z.); (S.Y.); (J.E.)
| | - Jeevithan Elango
- Department of Marine Bio-Pharmacology, College of Food Science and Technology, Shanghai Ocean University, Shanghai 201306, China; (J.F.); (B.Z.); (N.D.); (R.Z.); (S.Y.); (J.E.)
| | - Ning Liu
- Department of Marine Bio-Pharmacology, College of Food Science and Technology, Shanghai Ocean University, Shanghai 201306, China; (J.F.); (B.Z.); (N.D.); (R.Z.); (S.Y.); (J.E.)
- Engineering Research Center of Aquatic Product Processing & Preservation, Shanghai Ocean University, Shanghai 201306, China
- Correspondence: (N.L.); (W.W.)
| | - Wenhui Wu
- Department of Marine Bio-Pharmacology, College of Food Science and Technology, Shanghai Ocean University, Shanghai 201306, China; (J.F.); (B.Z.); (N.D.); (R.Z.); (S.Y.); (J.E.)
- Engineering Research Center of Aquatic Product Processing & Preservation, Shanghai Ocean University, Shanghai 201306, China
- Correspondence: (N.L.); (W.W.)
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Spears RJ, McMahon C, Chudasama V. Cysteine protecting groups: applications in peptide and protein science. Chem Soc Rev 2021; 50:11098-11155. [PMID: 34605832 DOI: 10.1039/d1cs00271f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Protecting group chemistry for the cysteine thiol group has enabled a vast array of peptide and protein chemistry over the last several decades. Increasingly sophisticated strategies for the protection, and subsequent deprotection, of cysteine have been developed, facilitating synthesis of complex disulfide-rich peptides, semisynthesis of proteins, and peptide/protein labelling in vitro and in vivo. In this review, we analyse and discuss the 60+ individual protecting groups reported for cysteine, highlighting their applications in peptide synthesis and protein science.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Clíona McMahon
- Department of Chemistry, University College London, London, UK.
| | - Vijay Chudasama
- Department of Chemistry, University College London, London, UK.
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Lv G, Miao Y, Chen Y, Lu C, Wang X, Xie M, Qiu L, Lin J. Promising potential of a 18F-labelled small-molecular radiotracer to evaluate PD-L1 expression in tumors by PET imaging. Bioorg Chem 2021; 115:105294. [PMID: 34426150 DOI: 10.1016/j.bioorg.2021.105294] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/04/2021] [Revised: 08/15/2021] [Accepted: 08/17/2021] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Programmed death ligand 1 (PD-L1) expression level is a reproducible biomarker for guiding stratification of patients to immunotherapy. However, the most widely used immunohistochemistry method is incompetent to fully understand the PD-L1 expression level in the whole body because of the highly complex PD-L1 expression in the tumor microenvironment. In this work, a novel small-molecular radiotracer [18F]LG-1 based on the biphenyl active structure was developed to evaluate PD-L1 expression in tumors. [18F]LG-1 was obtained by conjugating and radiolabeling with [18F]FDG with high radiochemical purity (>98.0%) and high molar activity (37.2 ± 2.9 MBq/nmol). In vitro experimental results showed that [18F]LG-1 could target PD-L1 in tumor cells and the cellular uptake in A375-hPD-L1 cells (PD-L1 + ) was clearly higher than that in A375 cells (PD-L1-). In vivo dynamic PET images of [18F]LG-1 provided clear visualization of A375-hPD-L1 tumor with high tumor-to-background contrast, and the tumor uptake was determined to be 3.98 ± 0.21 %ID/g at 60 min, which was 2.6-fold higher than that of A375 tumor. These results suggested that [18F]LG-1 had great potential as a promising PD-L1 radiotracer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gaochao Lv
- NHC Key Laboratory of Nuclear Medicine, Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Molecular Nuclear Medicine, Jiangsu Institute of Nuclear Medicine, Wuxi 214063, China; Department of Radiopharmaceuticals, School of Pharmacy, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing 211166, China
| | - Yinxing Miao
- NHC Key Laboratory of Nuclear Medicine, Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Molecular Nuclear Medicine, Jiangsu Institute of Nuclear Medicine, Wuxi 214063, China; Department of Radiopharmaceuticals, School of Pharmacy, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing 211166, China
| | - Yinfei Chen
- NHC Key Laboratory of Nuclear Medicine, Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Molecular Nuclear Medicine, Jiangsu Institute of Nuclear Medicine, Wuxi 214063, China; Department of Radiopharmaceuticals, School of Pharmacy, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing 211166, China
| | - Chunmei Lu
- NHC Key Laboratory of Nuclear Medicine, Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Molecular Nuclear Medicine, Jiangsu Institute of Nuclear Medicine, Wuxi 214063, China
| | - Xiuting Wang
- NHC Key Laboratory of Nuclear Medicine, Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Molecular Nuclear Medicine, Jiangsu Institute of Nuclear Medicine, Wuxi 214063, China
| | - Minhao Xie
- NHC Key Laboratory of Nuclear Medicine, Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Molecular Nuclear Medicine, Jiangsu Institute of Nuclear Medicine, Wuxi 214063, China; Department of Radiopharmaceuticals, School of Pharmacy, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing 211166, China
| | - Ling Qiu
- NHC Key Laboratory of Nuclear Medicine, Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Molecular Nuclear Medicine, Jiangsu Institute of Nuclear Medicine, Wuxi 214063, China; Department of Radiopharmaceuticals, School of Pharmacy, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing 211166, China.
| | - Jianguo Lin
- NHC Key Laboratory of Nuclear Medicine, Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Molecular Nuclear Medicine, Jiangsu Institute of Nuclear Medicine, Wuxi 214063, China; Department of Radiopharmaceuticals, School of Pharmacy, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing 211166, China.
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[ 18F]-C-SNAT4: an improved caspase-3-sensitive nanoaggregation PET tracer for imaging of tumor responses to chemo- and immunotherapies. Eur J Nucl Med Mol Imaging 2021; 48:3386-3399. [PMID: 33712870 DOI: 10.1007/s00259-021-05297-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/08/2020] [Accepted: 02/28/2021] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
Positron emission tomography (PET) imaging of apoptosis can noninvasively detect cell death in vivo and assist in monitoring tumor response to treatment in patients. While extensive efforts have been devoted to addressing this important need, no apoptosis PET imaging agents have yet been approved for clinical use. This study reports an improved 18F-labeled caspase-sensitive nanoaggregation tracer ([18F]-C-SNAT4) for PET imaging of tumor response to chemo- and immunotherapies in preclinical mouse models. METHODS We rationally designed and synthesized a new PET tracer [18F]-C-SNAT4 to detect cell death both in vitro and in vivo. In vitro radiotracer uptake studies were performed on drug-sensitive and -resistant NSCLC cell lines (NCI-H460 and NCI-H1299, respectively) treated with cisplatin at different doses. In vivo therapy response monitoring by [18F]-C-SNAT4 PET imaging was evaluated with two treatment modalities-chemotherapy and immunotherapy in two tumor xenografts in mice. Radiotracer uptake in the tumors was validated ex vivo using γ-counting and cleaved caspase-3 immunofluorescence. RESULTS This [18F]-C-SNAT4 PET tracer was facilely synthesized and displayed improved serum stability profiles. [18F]-C-SNAT4 cellular update was elevated in NCI-H460 cells in a time- and dose-dependent manner, which correlated well with cell death. A significant increase in [18F]-C-SNAT4 uptake was measured in NCI-H460 tumor xenografts in mice. In contrast, a rapid clearance of [18F]-C-SNAT4 was observed in drug-resistant NCI-H1299 in vitro and in tumor xenografts. Moreover, in BALB/C mice bearing murine colon cancer CT26 tumor xenografts receiving checkpoint inhibitors, [18F]-C-SNAT4 showed its ability for monitoring immunotherapy-induced apoptosis and reporting treatment-responding mice from non-responding. CONCLUSION The uptake of [18F]-C-SNAT4 in tumors received chemotherapy and immunotherapy is positively correlated with the tumor apoptotic level and the treatment efficacy. [18F]-C-SNAT4 PET imaging can monitor tumor response to two different treatment modalities and predict the therapeutic efficacy in preclinical mouse models.
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Xie J, Rice MA, Chen Z, Cheng Y, Hsu EC, Chen M, Song G, Cui L, Zhou K, Castillo JB, Zhang CA, Shen B, Chin FT, Kunder CA, Brooks JD, Stoyanova T, Rao J. In Vivo Imaging of Methionine Aminopeptidase II for Prostate Cancer Risk Stratification. Cancer Res 2021; 81:2510-2521. [PMID: 33637565 DOI: 10.1158/0008-5472.can-20-2969] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/02/2020] [Revised: 12/31/2020] [Accepted: 02/24/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Prostate cancer is one of the most common malignancies worldwide, yet limited tools exist for prognostic risk stratification of the disease. Identification of new biomarkers representing intrinsic features of malignant transformation and development of prognostic imaging technologies are critical for improving treatment decisions and patient survival. In this study, we analyzed radical prostatectomy specimens from 422 patients with localized disease to define the expression pattern of methionine aminopeptidase II (MetAP2), a cytosolic metalloprotease that has been identified as a druggable target in cancer. MetAP2 was highly expressed in 54% of low-grade and 59% of high-grade cancers. Elevated levels of MetAP2 at diagnosis were associated with shorter time to recurrence. Controlled self-assembly of a synthetic small molecule enabled design of the first MetAP2-activated PET imaging tracer for monitoring MetAP2 activity in vivo. The nanoparticles assembled upon MetAP2 activation were imaged in single prostate cancer cells with post-click fluorescence labeling. The fluorine-18-labeled tracers successfully differentiated MetAP2 activity in both MetAP2-knockdown and inhibitor-treated human prostate cancer xenografts by micro-PET/CT scanning. This highly sensitive imaging technology may provide a new tool for noninvasive early-risk stratification of prostate cancer and monitoring the therapeutic effect of MetAP2 inhibitors as anticancer drugs. SIGNIFICANCE: This study defines MetAP2 as an early-risk stratifier for molecular imaging of aggressive prostate cancer and describes a MetAP2-activated self-assembly small-molecule PET tracer for imaging MetAP2 activity in vivo.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jinghang Xie
- Department of Radiology, Molecular Imaging Program at Stanford, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, California
| | - Meghan A Rice
- Department of Radiology, Canary Center at Stanford for Cancer Early Detection, Stanford University School of Medicine, Palo Alto, California
| | - Zixin Chen
- Department of Chemistry, Stanford University, Stanford, California
| | - Yunfeng Cheng
- Department of Radiology, Molecular Imaging Program at Stanford, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, California
| | - En-Chi Hsu
- Department of Radiology, Canary Center at Stanford for Cancer Early Detection, Stanford University School of Medicine, Palo Alto, California
| | - Min Chen
- Department of Radiology, Molecular Imaging Program at Stanford, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, California
| | - Guosheng Song
- Department of Radiology, Molecular Imaging Program at Stanford, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, California
| | - Liyang Cui
- Department of Radiology, Molecular Imaging Program at Stanford, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, California
| | - Kaixiang Zhou
- Department of Radiology, Molecular Imaging Program at Stanford, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, California
| | - Jessa B Castillo
- Department of Radiology, Cyclotron and Radiochemistry Facility, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, California
| | - Chiyuan A Zhang
- Department of Urology, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, California
| | - Bin Shen
- Department of Radiology, Cyclotron and Radiochemistry Facility, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, California
| | - Frederick T Chin
- Department of Radiology, Molecular Imaging Program at Stanford, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, California.,Department of Radiology, Cyclotron and Radiochemistry Facility, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, California
| | - Christian A Kunder
- Department of Urology, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, California
| | - James D Brooks
- Department of Radiology, Canary Center at Stanford for Cancer Early Detection, Stanford University School of Medicine, Palo Alto, California.,Department of Urology, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, California
| | - Tanya Stoyanova
- Department of Radiology, Canary Center at Stanford for Cancer Early Detection, Stanford University School of Medicine, Palo Alto, California.
| | - Jianghong Rao
- Department of Radiology, Molecular Imaging Program at Stanford, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, California. .,Department of Chemistry, Stanford University, Stanford, California
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