Polymerizable Nonionic Perfluorinated Photoacid Generators for High-Resolution Lithography

Advanced photoresists must satisfy stringent sensitivity requirements while maintaining the ability to print ever-shrinking critical dimensions. However, the unavoidable acid diffusion associated with chemically amplified photoresists has led to a trade-off between resolution, line-edge roughness, and sensitivity, which presents a significant challenge for high-resolution lithography. To address this issue, a novel class of alkene-functionalized nonionic perfluorinated photoacid generators (PAGs) is developed. These fluorine-rich compounds significantly enhance the photochemical reactivity due to the introduction of abundant F-elements, thereby improving sensitivity. Upon irradiation by ultraviolet light or electrons, they generate long-chain perfluorinated sulfonic acids with large sizes and minimal diffusion ranges, effectively suppressing acid diffusion. Furthermore, by employing these polymerizable PAG monomers, PAG-bound polymers are synthesized that are likely to achieve higher resolution by minimizing acid diffusion. Lithography performance demonstrated patterning of sub-45 nm lines at an electron beam dose of 29 µC cm-2. Overall, the developed perfluorinated PAGs and PAG-bound polymer photoresists are promising candidates for achieving high-sensitivity and high-resolution nano-patterning.

Recent Advances and Challenges in Long Wavelength Sensitive Cationic Photoinitiating Systems

With the advantages offered by cationic photopolymerization (CP) such as broad wavelength activation, tolerance to oxygen, low shrinkage and the possibility of "dark cure", it has attracted extensive attention in photoresist, deep curing and other fields in recent years. The applied photoinitiating systems (PIS) play a crucial role as they can affect the speed and type of the polymerization and properties of the materials formed. In the past few decades, much effort has been invested into developing cationic photoinitiating systems (CPISs) that can be activated at long wavelengths and overcome technical problems and challenges faced. In this article, the latest developments in the long wavelength sensitive CPIS under ultraviolet (UV)/visible light-emitting diodes (LED) lights are reviewed. The objective is, furthermore, to show differences as well as parallels between different PIS and future perspectives.

Coumarinacyl Anilinium Salt: A Versatile Visible and NIR Photoinitiator for Cationic and Step-Growth Polymerizations

A coumarinacyl anilinium (CAA) salt, facilely synthesized via a one-pot reaction, is shown to be a versatile visible and NIR photoinitiator for cationic and step-growth polymerizations. CAA salt exhibits superior photoinitiation performance as compared to commercial iodonium salt in cationic polymerization. Upon visible-light irradiation, this salt undergoes hemolytic and heterolytic cleavage and subsequent electron transfer and hydrogen abstraction reactions, forming reactive species capable of initiating cationic polymerization of epoxides and vinyl monomers. After a short irradiation period, polymerization also proceeds in the dark due to the non-nucleophilic nature of the counteranion. NIR-induced polymerizations were successfully conducted based on upconversion photochemistry. CAA salt can also initiate step-growth polymerization of N-ethyl carbazole (NEC) by oxidation of the monomer by the photochemically formed anilium radical cations. Subsequent proton release and radical coupling reactions essentially yield polycarbazole. CAA salt, featuring straightforward synthesis and long-wavelength sensitivity as well as versatile photoinitiating performance, has great potential in various applications.

High-Performance Photoinitiating Systems for LED-Induced Photopolymerization

Currently, increasing attention has been focused on light-emitting diodes (LEDs)-induced photopolymerization. The common LEDs (e.g., LED at 365 nm and LED at 405 nm) possess narrow emission bands. Due to their light absorption properties, most commercial photoinitiators are sensitive to UV light and cannot be optimally activated under visible LED irradiation. Although many photoinitiators have been designed for LED-induced free radical polymerization and cationic polymerization, there is still the issue of the mating between photoinitiators and LEDs. Therefore, the development of novel photoinitiators, which could be applied under LED irradiation, is significant. Many photoinitiating systems have been reported in the past decade. In this review, some recently developed photoinitiators used in LED-induced photopolymerization, mainly in the past 5 years, are summarized and categorized as Type Ⅰ photoinitiators, Type Ⅱ photoinitiators, and dye-based photoinitiating systems. In addition, their light absorption properties and photoinitiation efficiencies are discussed.

Review of quantitative and qualitative methods for monitoring photopolymerization reactions

Authomatic in-situ monitoring and characterization of photopolymerization.

Monophosphoniums as Effective Photoredox Organocatalysts for Visible Light-Regulated Cationic RAFT Polymerization

Visible light-regulated metal-free polymerizations have attracted considerable attention for macromolecular syntheses in recent years. However, few organic photocatalysts show high efficiency and strict photocontrol in cationic polymerizations. Herein, we introduce monophosphonium-doped polycyclic arenes as an organic photocatalyst, which features the high tunability, broad redox window, long excited state lifetime, and excellent temporal control in the cationic reversible addition-fragmentation chain transfer polymerization of vinyl ethers. A correlation of the catalytic performance and the photophysical and electrochemical properties of photocatalysts is also discussed.

Photoswitching Cationic and Radical Polymerizations: Spatiotemporal Control of Thermoset Properties

The ability to fabricate polymeric materials with spatially controlled physical properties has been a challenge in thermoset manufacturing. To address this challenge, this work takes advantage of a photoswitchable polymerization that selectively incorporates different monomers at a growing chain by converting from cationic to radical polymerizations through modulation of the wavelength of irradiation. By regulating the dosage and wavelength of light applied to the system, the mechanical properties of the crosslinked material can be temporally and spatially tuned. Furthermore, photopatterning can be achieved both on the macroscale and the microscale, enabling precise spatial control of crosslink density that results in high-resolution control over mechanical properties.

Effective Singlet Oxygen Sensitizers Based on the Phenazine Skeleton as Efficient Light Absorbers in Dye Photoinitiating Systems for Radical Polymerization of Acrylates

A series of dyes based on the phenazine skeleton were synthesized. They differed in the number of conjugated double bonds, the arrangement of aromatic rings (linear and/or angular system), as well as the number and position of nitrogen atoms in the molecule. These compounds were investigated as potential singlet oxygen sensitizers and visible light absorbers in dye photoinitiating systems for radical polymerization. The quantum yield of the singlet oxygen formation was determined by the comparative method based on the 1H NMR spectra recorded for the tested dyes in the presence of 2,3-diphenyl-p-dioxene before and after irradiation. The quantum yield of the triplet state formation was estimated based on the transient absorption spectra recorded using the nanosecond flash photolysis technique. The effectiveness of the dye photoinitiating system was characterized by the initial rate of trimethylolpropane triacrylate (TMPTA) polymerization. In the investigated photoinitiating systems, the sensitizer was an electron acceptor, whereas the co-initiator was an electron donor. The effectiveness of TMPTA photoinitiated polymerization clearly depended on the arrangement of aromatic rings and the number of nitrogen atoms in the modified phenazine structure as well as the quantum yield of the triplet state formation of the photosensitizer in the visible light region.

3D printing of functional microrobots

3D printing (also called "additive manufacturing" or "rapid prototyping") is able to translate computer-aided and designed virtual 3D models into 3D tangible constructs/objects through a layer-by-layer deposition approach. Since its introduction, 3D printing has aroused enormous interest among researchers and engineers to understand the fabrication process and composition-structure-property correlation of printed 3D objects and unleash its great potential for application in a variety of industrial sectors. Because of its unique technological advantages, 3D printing can definitely benefit the field of microrobotics and advance the design and development of functional microrobots in a customized manner. This review aims to present a generic overview of 3D printing for functional microrobots. The most applicable 3D printing techniques, with a focus on laser-based printing, are introduced for the 3D microfabrication of microrobots. 3D-printable materials for fabricating microrobots are reviewed in detail, including photopolymers, photo-crosslinkable hydrogels, and cell-laden hydrogels. The representative applications of 3D-printed microrobots with rational designs heretofore give evidence of how these printed microrobots are being exploited in the medical, environmental, and other relevant fields. A future outlook on the 3D printing of microrobots is also provided.

Development of the first panchromatic BODIPY-based one-component iodonium salts for initiating the photopolymerization processes

Herein, new iodonium salts based on a 4,4-difluoro-1,3,5,7,8-pentamethyl-4-bora-3a,4a-diaza-s-indecene (B-1) chromophore have been introduced to 3D printing applications.

Moving Towards a Finer Way of Light-Cured Resin-Based Restorative Dental Materials: Recent Advances in Photoinitiating Systems Based on Iodonium Salts

The photoinduced polymerization of monomers is currently an essential tool in various industries. The photopolymerization process plays an increasingly important role in biomedical applications. It is especially used in the production of dental composites. It also exhibits unique properties, such as a short time of polymerization of composites (up to a few seconds), low energy consumption, and spatial resolution (polymerization only in irradiated areas). This paper describes a short overview of the history and classification of different typical monomers and photoinitiating systems such as bimolecular photoinitiator system containing camphorquinone and aromatic amine, 1-phenyl-1,2-propanedione, phosphine derivatives, germanium derivatives, hexaarylbiimidazole derivatives, silane-based derivatives and thioxanthone derivatives used in the production of dental composites with their limitations and disadvantages. Moreover, this article represents the challenges faced when using the latest inventions in the field of dental materials, with a particular focus on photoinitiating systems based on iodonium salts. The beneficial properties of dental composites cured using initiation systems based on iodonium salts have been demonstrated.

Visible light enabled para-fluoro-thiol ligation

The visible light-trigged para-fluoro-thiol ligation is demonstrated for first time by using the photogeneration of a superbase DBU.