Mitochondria-targeted curcumin loaded CTPP–PEG–PCL self-assembled micelles for improving liver fibrosis therapy

Nano-encapsulation of drugs to target hepatic stellate cells: Toward precision treatments of liver fibrosis

Liver fibrosis is characterized by excessive extracellular matrix (ECM) deposition triggered by hepatic stellate cells (HSCs). As central players in fibrosis progression, HSCs are the most important therapeutic targets for antifibrotic therapy. However, owing to the limitations of systemic drug administration, there is still no suitable and effective clinical treatment. In recent years, nanosystems have demonstrated expansive therapeutic potential and evolved into a clinical modality. In liver fibrosis, nanosystems have undergone a paradigm shift from targeting the whole liver to locally targeted modifying processes. Nanomedicine delivered to HSCs has significant potential in managing liver fibrosis, where optimal management would benefit from targeted delivery, personalized therapy based on the specific site of interest, and minor side effects. In this review, we present a brief overview of the role of HSCs in the pathogenesis of liver fibrosis, summarize the different types of nanocarriers and their specific delivery applications in liver fibrosis, and highlight the biological barriers associated with the use of nanosystems to target HSCs and approaches available to solve this issue. We further discuss in-depth all the molecular target receptors overexpressed during HSC activation in liver fibrosis and their corresponding ligands that have been used for drug or gene delivery targeting HSCs.

Advancements in Plant-Based Therapeutics for Hepatic Fibrosis: Molecular Mechanisms and Nanoparticulate Drug Delivery Systems

Chronic liver injuries often lead to hepatic fibrosis, a condition characterized by excessive extracellular matrix accumulation and abnormal connective tissue hyperplasia. Without effective treatment, hepatic fibrosis can progress to cirrhosis or hepatocellular carcinoma. Current treatments, including liver transplantation, are limited by donor shortages and high costs. As such, there is an urgent need for effective therapeutic strategies. This review focuses on the potential of plant-based therapeutics, particularly polyphenols, phenolic acids, and flavonoids, in treating hepatic fibrosis. These compounds have demonstrated anti-fibrotic activities through various signaling pathways, including TGF-β/Smad, AMPK/mTOR, Wnt/β-catenin, NF-κB, PI3K/AKT/mTOR, and hedgehog pathways. Additionally, this review highlights the advancements in nanoparticulate drug delivery systems that enhance the pharmacokinetics, bioavailability, and therapeutic efficacy of these bioactive compounds. Methodologically, this review synthesizes findings from recent studies, providing a comprehensive analysis of the mechanisms and benefits of these plant-based treatments. The integration of novel drug delivery systems with plant-based therapeutics holds significant promise for developing effective treatments for hepatic fibrosis.

Organelle stress and alterations in interorganelle crosstalk during liver fibrosis

The synchronous functioning and quality control of organelles ensure cell survival and function and are essential for maintaining homeostasis. Prolonged exposure to stressors (viruses, bacteria, parasitic infections, alcohol, drugs) or genetic mutations often disrupt the functional integrity of organelles which plays a critical role in the initiation and progression of several diseases including chronic liver diseases. One of the most important pathologic consequences of chronic liver diseases is liver fibrosis, characterized by tissue scarring due to the progressive accumulation of extracellular matrix components. Left untreated, fibrosis may advance to life-threatening complications such as cirrhosis, hepatic decompensation, and HCC, which collectively accounts for ∼1 million deaths per year worldwide. Owing to the lack of treatment options that can regress or reverse cirrhosis, liver transplantation is currently the only available treatment for end-stage liver disease. However, the limited supply of usable donor organs, adverse effects of lifelong immunosuppressive regimes, and financial considerations pose major challenges and limit its application. Hence, effective therapeutic strategies are urgently needed. An improved understanding of the organelle-level regulation of fibrosis can help devise effective antifibrotic therapies focused on reducing organelle stress, limiting organelle damage, improving interorganelle crosstalk, and restoring organelle homeostasis; and could be a potential clinical option to avoid transplantation. This review provides a timely update on the recent findings and mechanisms covering organelle-specific dysfunctions in liver fibrosis, highlights how correction of organelle functions opens new treatment avenues and discusses the potential challenges to clinical application.

Synthesis approaches of amphiphilic copolymers for spherical micelle preparation: application in drug delivery

The formation of polymeric micelles in aqueous environments through the self-assembly of amphiphilic polymers can provide a versatile platform to increase the solubility and permeability of hydrophobic drugs and pave the way for their administration. In comparison to various self-assembly-based vehicles, polymeric micelles commonly have a smaller size, spherical morphology, and simpler scale up process. The use of polymer-based micelles for the encapsulation and carrying of therapeutics to the site of action triggered a line of research on the synthesis of various amphiphilic polymers in the past few decades. The extended knowledge on polymers includes biocompatible smart amphiphilic copolymers for the formation of micelles, therapeutics loading and response to external stimuli, micelles with a tunable drug release pattern, etc. Different strategies such as ring-opening polymerization, atom transfer radical polymerization, reversible addition-fragmentation chain-transfer, nitroxide mediated polymerization, and a combination of these methods were employed to synthesize copolymers with diverse compositions and topologies with the proficiency of self-assembly into well-defined micellar structures. The current review provides a summary of the important polymerization techniques and recent achievements in the field of drug delivery using micellar systems. This review proposes new visions for the design and synthesis of innovative potent amphiphilic polymers in order to benefit from their application in drug delivery fields.

A bifunctional hepatocyte-mitochondrion targeting nanosystem for effective astaxanthin delivery to the liver

A bifunctional hepatocyte-mitochondrion targeting nanosystem was prepared for astaxanthin by conjugating lactobionic acid (LA) and triphenylphosphonium-modified 2-hydroxypropyl-β-cyclodextrin onto sodium alginate. Hepatocyte-targeting evaluation indicated that the fluorescence intensity of HepaRG cells treated with the bifunctional nanosystem increased 90.3%, which was greater than that (38.7%) of the LA-only targeted nanosystem. The Rcoloc was 0.81 for the bifunctional nanosystem in mitochondrion-targeting analysis, which was greater than that (0.62) of the LA-only targeted nanosystem. The reactive oxygen species (ROS) level of the astaxanthin bifunctional nanosystem treated group significantly reduced to 62.20%, lower than that of free astaxanthin (84.01%) and LA-only targeted group (73.83%). Mitochondrial membrane potential recovered 97.35% in the astaxanthin bifunctional nanosystem treated group while the LA-only targeted group recovered 77.45%. The accumulation of bifunctional nanosystem in liver increased by 31.01% compared to the control. These findings indicated that the bifunctional nanosystem was beneficial for astaxanthin delivery in the liver precision nutrition intervention.

Biomedical applications of biodegradable polycaprolactone-functionalized magnetic iron oxides nanoparticles and their polymer nanocomposites

Magnetic nanoparticles (MNPs) have gained significant attention among several nanoscale materials during the last decade due to their unique properties. These properties make them successful nanofillers for drug delivery and a number of new biomedical applications. MNPs are more useful when combined with biodegradable polymers. In this review, we discussed the synthesis of polycaprolactones (PCL) and the various methods of synthesizing magnetic iron oxide nanoparticles. Then, the synthesis of composites that is made of PCL and magnetic materials (with special focus on iron oxide nanoparticles) were highlighted. In addition, we comprehensively reviewed their application in drug delivery, cancer treatment, wound healing, hyperthermia, and bone tissue engineering. Other biomedical applications of the magnetic PCL such as mitochondria targeting are highlighted. Moreover, biomedical applications of magnetic nanoparticles incorporated into other synthetic polymers apart from PCL are also discussed. Thus, great progress and better outcome with functionalized MNPs enhanced with polycaprolactone has been recorded with the biomedical applications of drug delivery and recovery of bone tissues.

Modulation of Macrophages Using Nanoformulations with Curcumin to Treat Inflammatory Diseases: A Concise Review

Curcumin (Cur), a traditional Chinese medicine extracted from natural plant rhizomes, has become a candidate drug for the treatment of diseases due to its anti-inflammatory, anticancer, antioxidant, and antibacterial activities. However, the poor water solubility and low bioavailability of Cur limit its therapeutic effects for clinical applications. A variety of nanocarriers have been successfully developed to improve the water solubility, in vivo distribution, and pharmacokinetics of Cur, as well as to enhance the ability of Cur to polarize macrophages and relieve macrophage oxidative stress or anti-apoptosis, thus accelerating the therapeutic effects of Cur on inflammatory diseases. Herein, we review the design and development of diverse Cur nanoformulations in recent years and introduce the biomedical applications and potential therapeutic mechanisms of Cur nanoformulations in common inflammatory diseases, such as arthritis, neurodegenerative diseases, respiratory diseases, and ulcerative colitis, by regulating macrophage behaviors. Finally, the perspectives of the design and preparation of future nanocarriers aimed at efficiently exerting the biological activity of Cur are briefly discussed.

Improved solubility and corneal permeation of PEGylated curcumin complex used for the treatment of ophthalmic bacterial infections

Naturally occurring curcumin can be used for the treatment of corneal bacterial infections with its limitation of poor solubility. Aim of the present study was to enhance solubility and permeation of curcumin for the treatment of corneal bacterial infections. For increasing solubility, curcumin and polyethylene glycol (PEG 6000) complex (1:3) was prepared by fusion melting method. Phase solubility studies were used for the calculation of Gibbs free energy of curcumin. Central composite rotatable design (CCRD) was applied for optimization of Curcumin (CUR), PEGylated Curcumin (PEG-CUR), penetration enhancer cremophore (CR). Optimized ointments were further evaluated by mucous permeation, membrane permeability and cell toxicity studies by Transwell cell, ussing chamber and Caco-2 cells respectively. Antibacterial test was also performed by agar well diffusion method. Solubility of PEG-CUR was increased up to 93±3.2% as compared to pure curcumin and content uniformity was in the range of 95-110%. Curcumin permeation from PEG-CUR ointment was increased up to 12 folds. No toxicity of Caco-2 cells for PEG-CUR even after 24h was observed. Activity index of pure CUR, PEG-CUR ointment with or without CR against S. aureus and P. aeruginosa was 97±2.3, 96±1.6, 95±2.5% respectively. Ointment with solubility enhanced PEG-CUR and cremophore can be used as a promising tool for the treatment of corneal bacterial infections.