Tumor microenvironment-responsive multifunctional nanoplatform based on MnFe2O4-PEG for enhanced magnetic resonance imaging-guided hypoxic cancer radiotherapy

Therapeutic application of manganese-based nanosystems in cancer radiotherapy

Radiotherapy is an important therapeutic modality in the treatment of cancers. Nevertheless, the characteristics of the tumor microenvironment (TME), such as hypoxia and high glutathione (GSH), limit the efficacy of radiotherapy. Manganese-based (Mn-based) nanomaterials offer a promising prospect for sensitizing radiotherapy due to their good responsiveness to the TME. In this review, we focus on the mechanisms of radiosensitization of Mn-based nanosystems, including alleviating tumor hypoxia, increasing reactive oxygen species production, increasing GSH conversion, and promoting antitumor immunity. We further illustrate the applications of these mechanisms in cancer radiotherapy, including the development and delivery of radiosensitizers, as well as their combination with other therapeutic modalities. Finally, we summarize the application of Mn-based nanosystems as contrast agents in realizing precision therapy. Hopefully, the present review will provide new insights into the biological mechanisms of Mn-based nanosystems, as well as their applications in radiotherapy, in order to address the difficulties and challenges that remain in their clinical application in the future.

Manganese-Based Nanotheranostics for Magnetic Resonance Imaging-Mediated Precise Cancer Management

Manganese (Mn)-based magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) has become a competitive imaging modality for cancer diagnosis due to its advantages of non-invasiveness, high resolution and excellent biocompatibility. In recent years, a variety of Mn contrast agents based on different material systems have been synthesized, and a series of multi-purpose Mn nanocomposites have also emerged, showing satisfactory relaxation efficiency and MRI performance thus possess the transformation and application value in MRI-synergized cancer diagnosis and treatment. This tutorial review starts from the classification and properties of Mn-based nanomaterials, and then summarizes various preparation and functionalization strategies of nanosized Mn contrast agents, especially focuses on the latest progress of Mn contrast agents in MRI-synergized precise cancer theranostics. In addition, present review also discusses the current clinical transformation obstacles such as unclear molecular mechanisms, potential nanotoxicity, and scale production constraints. This paper provides evidence-based recommendations about the future prospects of multifunctional nanoplatforms, as well as technical guidance and panoramic expectations for the design of clinically meaningful cancer management programs.

Prospects of nanoparticle-based radioenhancement for radiotherapy

Radiotherapy is a key pillar of solid cancer treatment. Despite a high level of conformal dose deposition, radiotherapy is limited due to co-irradiation of organs at risk and subsequent normal tissue toxicities. Nanotechnology offers an attractive opportunity for increasing the efficacy and safety of cancer radiotherapy. Leveraging the freedom of design and the growing synthetic capabilities of the nanomaterial-community, a variety of engineered nanomaterials have been designed and investigated as radiosensitizers or radioenhancers. While research so far has been primarily focused on gold nanoparticles and other high atomic number materials to increase the absorption cross section of tumor tissue, recent studies are challenging the traditional concept of high-Z nanoparticle radioenhancers and highlight the importance of catalytic activity. This review provides a concise overview on the knowledge of nanoparticle radioenhancement mechanisms and their quantification. It critically discusses potential radioenhancer candidate materials and general design criteria for different radiation therapy modalities, and concludes with research priorities in order to advance the development of nanomaterials, to enhance the efficacy of radiotherapy and to increase at the same time the therapeutic window.

Alleviating the hypoxic tumor microenvironment with MnO2-coated CeO2 nanoplatform for magnetic resonance imaging guided radiotherapy

BACKGROUND

Radiotherapy is a commonly used tool in clinical practice to treat solid tumors. However, due to the unique microenvironment inside the tumor, such as high levels of GSH, overexpressed H₂O₂ and hypoxia, these factors can seriously affect the effectiveness of radiotherapy.

RESULTS

Therefore, to further improve the efficiency of radiotherapy, a core-shell nanocomposite CeO₂-MnO₂ is designed as a novel radiosensitizer that can modulate the tumor microenvironment (TME) and thus improve the efficacy of radiation therapy. CeO₂-MnO₂ can act as a radiosensitizer to enhance X-ray absorption at the tumor site while triggering the response behavior associated with the tumor microenvironment. According to in vivo and in vitro experiments, the nanoparticles aggravate the killing effect on tumor cells by generating large amounts of ROS and disrupting the redox balance. In this process, the outer layer of MnO₂ reacts with GSH and H₂O₂ in the tumor microenvironment to generate ROS and release oxygen, thus alleviating the hypoxic condition in the tumor area. Meanwhile, the manganese ions produced by degradation can enhance T1-weighted magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). In addition, CeO₂-MnO₂, due to its high atomic number oxide CeO₂, releases a large number of electrons under the effect of radiotherapy, which further reacts with intracellular molecules to produce reactive oxygen species and enhances the killing effect on tumor cells, thus having the effect of radiotherapy sensitization. In conclusion, the nanomaterial CeO₂-MnO₂, as a novel radiosensitizer, greatly improves the efficiency of cancer radiation therapy by improving the lack of oxygen in tumor and responding to the tumor microenvironment, providing an effective strategy for the construction of nanosystem with radiosensitizing function.

CONCLUSION

In conclusion, the nanomaterial CeO₂-MnO₂, as a novel radiosensitizer, greatly improves the efficiency of cancer radiation therapy by improving the lack of oxygen in tumor and responding to the tumor microenvironment, providing an effective strategy for the construction of nanosystems with radiosensitizing function.

Shape programmable T1-T2 dual-mode MRI nanoprobes for cancer theranostics

The shape effect is an important parameter in the design of novel nanomaterials. Engineering the shape of nanomaterials is an effective strategy for optimizing their bioactive performance. Nanomaterials with a unique shape are beneficial to blood circulation, tumor targeting, cell uptake, and even improved magnetism properties. Therefore, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) nanoprobes with different shapes have been extensively focused on in recent years. Different from other multimodal imaging techniques, dual-mode MRI can provide imaging simultaneously by a single instrument, which can avoid differences in penetration depth, and the spatial and temporal resolution of multiple imaging devices, and ensure the accurate matching of spatial and temporal imaging parameters for the precise diagnosis of early tumors. This review summarizes the latest developments of nanomaterials with various shapes for T₁-T₂ dual-mode MRI, and highlights the mechanism of how shape intelligently affects nanomaterials' longitudinal or transverse relaxation, namely sphere, hollow, core-shell, cube, cluster, flower, dumbbell, rod, sheet, and bipyramid shapes. In addition, the combination of T₁-T₂ dual-mode MRI nanoprobes and advanced therapeutic strategies, as well as possible challenges from basic research to clinical transformation, are also systematically discussed. Therefore, this review will help others quickly understand the basic information on dual-mode MRI nanoprobes and gather thought-provoking ideas to advance the subfield of cancer nanomedicine.

Multifunctional tunable ZnFe2O4@MnFe2O4 nanoparticles for dual-mode MRI and combined magnetic hyperthermia with radiotherapy treatment

With the increase in non-communicable diseases, cancer is becoming one of the most lethal ailments of the coming decades. Significant progress has been made in the development of NPs that combine diagnostic and therapeutic properties in a single system. Multimodal NPs that sequentially perform MRI diagnostics with increased contrast and then act as synergistic agents for magnetic hyperthermia and radiotherapy can be considered as next-generation anticancer drugs. Thus, we propose a systematic study of composite theranostic ZnFe₂O₄@MnFe₂O₄ NPs for the first time. Two types of magnetic NPs with MnFe₂O₄ shell thicknesses of 0.5 (ZM0.5) and 1.7 nm (ZM3) were prepared via hydrothermal synthesis. Tuning the shell thickness was shown to influence the NP r₂ and r₁ relaxivities and allow T₁-T₂ dual-mode contrast agents to be obtained. A radiotherapy study demonstrated a significant dose factor enhancement (about 40%) for both NP types. The specific absorption rate of ZM3 in a 100 Oe alternating magnetic field with a frequency of 75 kHz was found to be 8 W g^-1, which results in heating up to 42 °C within a few seconds. This work presents high-performance multifunctional NPs capable of combining different diagnostic and therapeutic methods for a full course of treatment using only one type of NP.

Intercomparison of radiosensitization induced by gold and iron oxide nanoparticles in human glioblastoma cells irradiated by 6 MV photons

In this work, an intercomparison of sensitization effects produced by gold (GNP) and dextran-coated iron oxide (SPION-DX) nanoparticles in M059J and U87 human glioblastoma cells was performed using 6 MV-photons. Three variables were mapped: the nanoparticle material, treatment concentration, and cell radiosensitivity. For U87, GNP treatments resulted in high sensitization enhancement ratios (SER\documentclass[12pt]{minimal} \usepackage{amsmath} \usepackage{wasysym} \usepackage{amsfonts} \usepackage{amssymb} \usepackage{amsbsy} \usepackage{mathrsfs} \usepackage{upgreek} \setlength{\oddsidemargin}{-69pt} \begin{document}$$_{10\%}$$\end{document}10% up to 2.04). More modest effects were induced by SPION-DX, but still significant reductions in survival were achieved (maximum SER\documentclass[12pt]{minimal} \usepackage{amsmath} \usepackage{wasysym} \usepackage{amsfonts} \usepackage{amssymb} \usepackage{amsbsy} \usepackage{mathrsfs} \usepackage{upgreek} \setlength{\oddsidemargin}{-69pt} \begin{document}$$_{10\%}=1.61$$\end{document}10%=1.61 ). For the radiosensitive M059J, sensitization by both NPs was poor. SER\documentclass[12pt]{minimal} \usepackage{amsmath} \usepackage{wasysym} \usepackage{amsfonts} \usepackage{amssymb} \usepackage{amsbsy} \usepackage{mathrsfs} \usepackage{upgreek} \setlength{\oddsidemargin}{-69pt} \begin{document}$$_{10\%}$$\end{document}10% increased with the degree of elemental uptake in the cells, but not necessarily with treatment concentration. For GNP, where exposure concentration and elemental uptake were found to be proportional, SER\documentclass[12pt]{minimal} \usepackage{amsmath} \usepackage{wasysym} \usepackage{amsfonts} \usepackage{amssymb} \usepackage{amsbsy} \usepackage{mathrsfs} \usepackage{upgreek} \setlength{\oddsidemargin}{-69pt} \begin{document}$$_{10\%}$$\end{document}10% increased linearly with concentration in both cell lines. For SPION-DX, saturation of sensitization enhancement and metal uptake occurred at high exposures. Fold change in the \documentclass[12pt]{minimal} \usepackage{amsmath} \usepackage{wasysym} \usepackage{amsfonts} \usepackage{amssymb} \usepackage{amsbsy} \usepackage{mathrsfs} \usepackage{upgreek} \setlength{\oddsidemargin}{-69pt} \begin{document}$$\alpha /\beta$$\end{document}α/β ratios extracted from survival curves are reduced by the presence of SPION-DX but strongly increased by GNPs , suggesting that sensitization by GNPs occurs mainly via promotion of lethal damage, while for SPION-DX repairable damage dominates. The NPs were more effective in eliminating the radioresistant glioblastoma cells, an interesting finding, as resistant cells are key targets to improve treatment outcome.

The Metal Ion Release of Manganese Ferrite Nanoparticles: Kinetics, Effects on Magnetic Resonance Relaxivities, and Toxicity

Mn²⁺ release is particularly important for biological application of manganese-based nanomaterials. However, the Mn²⁺ release profiles of the manganese ferrite nanoparticles are under clarification. Here, we synthesized 3, 10, and 18 nm manganese ferrite nanoparticles (MFNPs) as model systems to study the Mn²⁺ release behavior, size, and pH-dependent kinetics. The Mn²⁺ release kinetic study showed that the first-order kinetic model was suitable for 3 and 10 nm MFNPs, while the Higuchi model was suitable for 18 nm MFNPs in a neutral PBS buffer (pH 7.4). In an acidic PBS buffer (pH 4.8), the Mn²⁺ release from all sizes of MFNPs follows first-order kinetics, which is possible due to the reaction between MFNPs and H⁺. The influence of Mn²⁺ release was evaluated by comparing the variations of magnetic resonance (MR) relaxation and magnetic properties before and after Mn²⁺ release of MFNPs. The results showed that the saturation magnetization (M_s), longitudinal relaxivity (r₁), and transverse relaxivity (r₂) values declined due to Mn²⁺ release, while the ratio of r₂/r₁ increased slightly, showing that all sizes of MFNPs exhibited the same MR mode as the synthesized MFNPs. More importantly, the release kinetics were employed to estimate the toxicity of the released Mn²⁺ in vivo. The potential toxicity is acceptable for MFNP administration since the calculated amount of Mn²⁺ is in the range of safe doses.

Development of nanotechnology-mediated precision radiotherapy for anti-metastasis and radioprotection

Radiotherapy (RT), including external beam RT and internal radiation therapy, uses high-energy ionizing radiation to kill tumor cells.

Oxygen switches: Refueling for cancer radiotherapy

Radiotherapy remains the major therapeutic intervention for tumor patients. However, the hypoxic tumor microenvironment leads to treatment resistance. Recently, a burgeoning number of nano-radiosensitizers designed to increase the oxygen concentration in tumors were reported. These nano radiosensitizers served as oxygen carriers, oxygen generators, and even sustained oxygen pumps, attracting increased research interest. In this review, we focus on the novel oxygen-enrich nano radiosensitizers, which we call oxygen switches, and highlight their influence in radiotherapy through different strategies. Physical strategies-based oxygen switches carried O₂ into the tumor via their high oxygen capacity. The chemical reactions to generate O₂ in situ were triggered by chemical strategies-based oxygen switches. Biological strategies-based oxygen switches regulated tumor metabolism, remodeled tumor vasculature, and even introduced microorganisms-mediated photosynthesis for long-lasting hypoxia alleviating. Moreover, the challenges and perspectives of oxygen switches-mediated oxygen-enrich radiotherapy were discussed.

Stimulus-responsive nanomaterials under physical regulation for biomedical applications

Cancer is a growing threat to human beings. Traditional treatments for malignant tumors usually involve invasive means to healthy human tissues, such as surgical treatment and chemotherapy. In recent years the use of specific stimulus-responsive materials in combination with some non-contact, non-invasive stimuli can lead to better efficacy and has become an important area of research. It promises to develop personalized treatment systems for four types of physical stimuli: light, ultrasound, magnetic field, and temperature. Nanomaterials that are responsive to these stimuli can be used to enhance drug delivery, cancer treatment, and tissue engineering. This paper reviews the principles of the stimuli mentioned above, their effects on materials, and how they work with nanomaterials. For this aim, we focus on specific applications in controlled drug release, cancer therapy, tissue engineering, and virus detection, with particular reference to recent photothermal, photodynamic, sonodynamic, magnetothermal, radiation, and other types of therapies. It is instructive for the future development of stimulus-responsive nanomaterials for these aspects.

Nanocarrier-Based Drug Delivery for Melanoma Therapeutics

Melanoma, as a tumor cell derived from melanocyte transformation, has the characteristics of malignant proliferation, high metastasis, rapid recurrence, and a low survival rate. Traditional therapy has many shortcomings, including drug side effects and poor patient compliance, and so on. Therefore, the development of an effective treatment is necessary. Currently, nanotechnologies are a promising oncology treatment strategy because of their ability to effectively deliver drugs and other bioactive molecules to targeted tissues with low toxicity, thereby improving the clinical efficacy of cancer therapy. In this review, the application of nanotechnology in the treatment of melanoma is reviewed and discussed. First, the pathogenesis and molecular targets of melanoma are elucidated, and the current clinical treatment strategies and deficiencies of melanoma are then introduced. Following this, we discuss the main features of developing efficient nanosystems and introduce the latest reports in the literature on nanoparticles for the treatment of melanoma. Subsequently, we review and discuss the application of nanoparticles in chemotherapeutic agents, immunotherapy, mRNA vaccines, and photothermal therapy, as well as the potential of nanotechnology in the early diagnosis of melanoma.