Ganoderma atrum polysaccharide modulates the M1/M2 polarization of macrophages linked to the Notch signaling pathway

Traditional Chinese medicine in regulating macrophage polarization in immune response of inflammatory diseases

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Numerous studies have demonstrated that various traditional Chinese medicines (TCMs) exhibit potent anti-inflammatory effects against inflammatory diseases mediated through macrophage polarization and metabolic reprogramming.

AIM OF THE STUDY

The objective of this review was to assess and consolidate the current understanding regarding the pathogenic mechanisms governing macrophage polarization in the context of regulating inflammatory diseases. We also summarize the mechanism action of various TCMs on the regulation of macrophage polarization, which may contribute to facilitate the development of natural anti-inflammatory drugs based on reshaping macrophage polarization.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

We conducted a comprehensive review of recently published articles, utilizing keywords such as "macrophage polarization" and "traditional Chinese medicines" in combination with "inflammation," as well as "macrophage polarization" and "inflammation" in conjunction with "natural products," and similar combinations, to search within PubMed and Google Scholar databases.

RESULTS

A total of 113 kinds of TCMs (including 62 components of TCMs, 27 TCMs as well as various types of extracts of TCMs and 24 Chinese prescriptions) was reported to exert anti-inflammatory effects through the regulation of key pathways of macrophage polarization and metabolic reprogramming.

CONCLUSIONS

In this review, we have analyzed studies concerning the involvement of macrophage polarization and metabolic reprogramming in inflammation therapy. TCMs has great advantages in regulating macrophage polarization in treating inflammatory diseases due to its multi-pathway and multi-target pharmacological action. This review may contribute to facilitate the development of natural anti-inflammatory drugs based on reshaping macrophage polarization.

The ameliorative effect on chemotherapy-induced injury and tumor immunosuppressive microenvironment of the polysaccharide from the rhizome of Menispermum dauricum DC

Combined medication has attracted increasing attention as an important treatment option for tumors due to the serious adverse effects of chemotherapy. In this study, as a new therapy strategy, a combination treatment of MDP (a polysaccharide from the rhizome of Menispermum dauricum DC.) with cyclophosphamide (CTX) was investigated. The results showed that combination treatment with MDP and CTX exerted a significantly synergistic anti-tumor effect in Lewis tumor-bearing mice, improved CTX-induced emaciation and hair loss, as well as increased the number of leukocytes, erythrocytes, hemoglobin, and platelets in the peripheral blood. In addition, compared with CTX alone, the thymus index and spleen index of the MDP + CTX group were increased, the number of CD3 + T cells, CD8 + T cells, white blood cells and B cells in spleen also increased significantly. MDP could also ameliorate the increase in liver and kidney index caused by CTX. In the Lewis lung cancer model, MDP showed a certain degree of anti-tumor effects, which may be related to its promotion of tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs) to M1 phenotype polarisation, enhancement of the number of T cells in tumor tissues and promotion of Th cells in tumor tissues to Th1 phenotype polarisation, thus alleviating the immunosuppressive microenvironment in tumor tissues. This study laid the foundation for the development of MDP as a polysaccharide drug for the treatment or adjuvant therapy of tumors and has important significance for the further clinical application of polysaccharides.

Structural Characterization and In Vitro Anti-Inflammatory Activity of Polysaccharides Isolated from the Fruits of Rosa laevigata

RLPa-2 (Mw 15.6 kDa) is a polysaccharide isolated from Rosa laevigata Michx. It consists of arabinose (Ara), galactose (Gal), rhamnose (Rha), glucose (Glc), xylose (Xyl), and galacturonic acid (Gal-UA) with a molar ratio of 1.00:0.91:0.39:0.34:0.25:0.20. Structural characterization was performed by methylation and NMR analysis, which indicated that RLPa-2 might comprise →6)-α-D-Galp-(1→, →4)-α-D-GalpA-(1→, α-L-Araf-(1→, →2,4)-α-D-Glcp-(1→, β-D-Xylp, and α-L-Rhap. In addition, the bioactivity of RLPa-2 was assessed through an in vitro macrophage polarization assay. Compared to positive controls, there was a significant decrease in the expression of M1 macrophage markers (CD80, CD86) and p-STAT3/STAT3 protein. Additionally, there was a down-regulation in the production of pro-inflammatory mediators (NO, IL-6, TNF-α), indicating that M1 macrophage polarization induced with lipopolysaccharide (LPS) and interferon-γ (IFN-γ) stimulation could be inhibited by RLPa-2. These findings demonstrate that the RLPa-2 might be considered as a potential anti-inflammatory drug to reduce inflammation.

Investigating the Antidepressant Mechanisms of Polygonum sibiricum Polysaccharides via Microglial Polarization

Polygonum sibiricum, with its medicinal and edibility dual properties, has been widely recognized and utilized throughout Chinese history. As a kind of its effective component, Polygonum sibiricum polysaccharides (PSP) have been reported to be a promising novel antidepressant agent. Meanwhile, the precise mechanisms underlying its action remain elusive. The polarization state transition of microglia is intricately linked to neuroinflammation, indicating its crucial involvement in the pathophysiology of depression. Researchers are vigorously pursuing the exploration of this potential treatment strategy, aiming to comprehend its underlying mechanisms. Hence, the current study was designed to investigate the antidepressant mechanisms of PSP via Microglial M1/M2 Polarization, based on the lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced BV2 cell activation model. The results indicate that PSP significantly inhibited NO and LDH release and reduced ROS levels in LPS-induced BV2 cells. PSP could significantly reduce the protein expression level of Iba-1, decreased the mRNA levels of TNF-α, IL-1β, and IL-6, and increased the mRNA level of IL-10. PSP also significantly reduced the protein expression level of CD16/32 and increased that of CD206, reduced the mRNA level and fluorescence intensity of iNOS, and increased those of Arg-1. However, PSP pretreatment reversed the alterations of the BDNF/TrkB/CREB and Notch/Hes1 pathways in LPS-induced BV2 cells. These results suggested that PSP exerted the anti-inflammatory effects by inhibiting M1 phenotype polarization and promoting microglia polarization toward the M2 phenotype, and its regulation of microglia M1/M2 polarization may be associated with modulating the BDNF/TrkB/CREB and Notch/Hes1 pathways.

ZnF3, a sulfated polysaccharide from Antrodia cinnamomea, inhibits lung cancer cells via induction of apoptosis and activation of M1-like macrophage-induced cell death

Sulfated polysaccharides (Ac-SPSs) of Antrodia cinnamomea present anti-cancer activity. However, the anti-cancer mechanism of Ac-SPSs is not fully understood and remains largely unexplored. In this study, we identify an Ac-SPS with 7.9 kDa, noted ZnF3, and aim to examine the dual anti-cancer functions of ZnF3 on inhibiting cancer cells and activating macrophages. A biological study shows that ZnF3 inhibits lung cancer cells by inducing subG1 population and apoptosis. ZnF3 downregulates the expression of TGFβ receptor in lung cancer cells. In parallel, ZnF3 activates macrophages via induction of TNF-α and IL-6 secretion, NO production and phagocytosis. ZnF3 activates AKT/mTOR pathway and induces M1 type macrophage polarization. Cancer cells co-cultured with ZnF3-stimulated macrophages, leading to inhibition of lung cancer cells. This study demonstrates that ZnF3 not only directly inhibits cancer cells but also activates macrophages-mediated cytotoxic effect on cancer cells. Moreover, ZnF3 may be a supplement for suppressing lung cancer cells.

3-OH Phloretin Inhibits High-Fat Diet-Induced Obesity and Obesity-Induced Inflammation by Reducing Macrophage Infiltration into White Adipose Tissue

Phloretin and its glycoside phlorizin have been reported to prevent obesity induced by high-fat diet (HFD), but the effect of 3-OH phloretin, a catechol metabolite of phloretin, has not been investigated. In this study, we investigated the anti-obesity effects of phloretin and 3-OH phloretin in HFD-fed mice. The body weight gain induced by HFD was more inhibited by administration of 3-OH phloretin than by phloretin. The increases in fat mass, white adipose tissue (WAT) weight, adipocyte size, and lipid accumulation by HFD were also remarkably inhibited by 3-OH phloretin and, to a lesser extent, by phloretin. The HFD-induced upregulation of chemokines and pro-inflammatory cytokines was suppressed by 3-OH phloretin, preventing M1 macrophages from infiltrating into WAT and thereby reducing WAT inflammation. 3-OH phloretin also showed a more potent effect than phloretin on suppressing the expression of adipogenesis regulator genes, such as PPARγ2, C/EBPα, FAS, and CD36. Fasting blood glucose and insulin levels increased by HFD were diminished by the administration of 3-OH phloretin, suggesting that 3-OH phloretin may alleviate obesity-induced insulin resistance. These findings suggested that 3-OH phloretin has the potential to be a natural bioactive compound that can be used in the prevention or treatment of obesity and insulin resistance.

Enhancing the antitumor immunosurveillance of PD-L1-targeted gene therapy for metastatic melanoma using cationized Panax Notoginseng polysaccharide

Improved curative effects with reduced toxicity has always been the ultimate goal of gene delivery vectors for tumor immunotherapy. Panax notoginseng polysaccharide (PNP), a natural plant-derived macromolecule, not only has antitumor immune activity but also has the typical structural characteristics useful for gene delivery. In this work, positively charged polyethyleneimine (PEI) was directly grafted to the backbone of PNP to induced its charge reversal and generate a functional gene vector (PNP-PEI). Moreover, a short hairpin RNA targeting the programmed death-ligand 1 (PD-L1) was loaded into PNP-PEI to generate a potentially therapeutic nanoparticle (PNP-PEI/shPD-L1). In vitro and in vivo experiments demonstrated that PNP-PEI could efficiently carry the therapeutic shPD-L1 into tumor cells and that PNP-PEI/shPD-L1 could significantly inhibit the expression of PD-L1 and growth of B16-F10 cells. Noteworthily, treatment with PNP-PEI reversed the phenotype of macrophages from M2 to M1 subtype and promoted dendritic cell maturation, which encouraged the host immunity and enhanced the therapeutic antitumor effects. In summary, this study describes a PNP-based gene delivery vector and highlights the beneficial immunopotentiating therapeutic outcomes of PNP-PEI for tumor immunotherapy.