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Chen HW, Yan LH, Wang XJ, Zhao ZY, Wu X, Li J, Lei XS, Xiong J, Hu JF. Undescribed polyketides from endophytes associated with the critically endangered conifer Abies beshanzuensis. Fitoterapia 2024; 177:106104. [PMID: 38950637 DOI: 10.1016/j.fitote.2024.106104] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/20/2024] [Revised: 06/21/2024] [Accepted: 06/27/2024] [Indexed: 07/03/2024]
Abstract
Four undescribed polyketides, beshanzones A (1) and B (2) as well as beshanhexanols A (3) and B (4), along with three known ones (5-7) were isolated from the rice fermentation of two endophytic fungi associated with the critically endangered Chinese endemic conifer Abies beshanzuensis. γ-Butyrolactone derivatives 1, 2, and 5 were isolated from Phomopsis sp. BSZ-AZ-2, an interesting strain that drawn our attention this time. The cyclohexanol derivatives 3, 4, 6, and 7 were obtained during a follow-up investigation on Penicillium commune BSZ-P-4-1. The chemical structures including absolute configurations of compounds 1-4 were determined by spectroscopic methods, Mo2(OAc)4 induced electronic circular dichroism (IECD), GIAO NMR calculations and DP4+ probability analyses. In particular, compound 2 contains a novel 5/5 bicyclic ring system, which might be biogenetically derived from the known compound 5 through hydrolysis followed by an Aldol reaction. All isolates were evaluated for their antimicrobial activities against a small panel of bacterial and fungal pathogens. Compounds 6 and 7 showed moderate inhibitory activities against Candida albicans, with MIC values of 16 and 32 μg/mL, respectively.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hao-Wei Chen
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Zhejiang Provincial Key Laboratory of Plant Evolutionary Ecology and Conservation, Taizhou University, Zhejiang 318000, PR China; School of Pharmacy, Fudan University, Shanghai 201203, PR China
| | - Li-Hong Yan
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Zhejiang Provincial Key Laboratory of Plant Evolutionary Ecology and Conservation, Taizhou University, Zhejiang 318000, PR China
| | - Xue-Jiao Wang
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Zhejiang Provincial Key Laboratory of Plant Evolutionary Ecology and Conservation, Taizhou University, Zhejiang 318000, PR China; School of Pharmacy, Fudan University, Shanghai 201203, PR China
| | - Ze-Yu Zhao
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Zhejiang Provincial Key Laboratory of Plant Evolutionary Ecology and Conservation, Taizhou University, Zhejiang 318000, PR China; School of Pharmacy, Fudan University, Shanghai 201203, PR China
| | - Xiying Wu
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Zhejiang Provincial Key Laboratory of Plant Evolutionary Ecology and Conservation, Taizhou University, Zhejiang 318000, PR China; School of Pharmacy, Fudan University, Shanghai 201203, PR China
| | - Jiyang Li
- School of Pharmacy, Fudan University, Shanghai 201203, PR China
| | - Xin-Sheng Lei
- School of Pharmacy, Fudan University, Shanghai 201203, PR China
| | - Juan Xiong
- School of Pharmacy, Fudan University, Shanghai 201203, PR China.
| | - Jin-Feng Hu
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Zhejiang Provincial Key Laboratory of Plant Evolutionary Ecology and Conservation, Taizhou University, Zhejiang 318000, PR China; School of Pharmacy, Fudan University, Shanghai 201203, PR China.
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2
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Borkunov GV, Leshchenko EV, Berdyshev DV, Popov RS, Chingizova EA, Shlyk NP, Gerasimenko AV, Kirichuk NN, Khudyakova YV, Chausova VE, Antonov AS, Kalinovsky AI, Chingizov AR, Yurchenko EA, Isaeva MP, Yurchenko AN. New piperazine derivatives helvamides B-C from the marine-derived fungus Penicillium velutinum ZK-14 uncovered by OSMAC (One Strain Many Compounds) strategy. NATURAL PRODUCTS AND BIOPROSPECTING 2024; 14:32. [PMID: 38769256 PMCID: PMC11106049 DOI: 10.1007/s13659-024-00449-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/07/2024] [Accepted: 04/21/2024] [Indexed: 05/22/2024]
Abstract
Four extracts of the marine-derived fungus Penicillium velutinum J.F.H. Beyma were obtained via metal ions stress conditions based on the OSMAC (One Strain Many Compounds) strategy. Using a combination of modern approaches such as LC/UV, LC/MS and bioactivity data analysis, as well as in silico calculations, influence metal stress factors to change metabolite profiles Penicillium velutinum were analyzed. From the ethyl acetate extract of the P. velutinum were isolated two new piperazine derivatives helvamides B (1) and C (2) together with known saroclazin A (3) (4S,5R,7S)-4,11-dihydroxy-guaia-1(2),9(10)-dien (4). Their structures were established based on spectroscopic methods. The absolute configuration of helvamide B (1) as 2R,5R was determined by a combination of the X-ray analysis and by time-dependent density functional theory (TD-DFT) calculations of electronic circular dichroism (ECD) spectra. The cytotoxic activity of the isolated compounds against human prostate cancer PC-3 and human embryonic kidney HEK-293 cells and growth inhibition activity against yeast-like fungi Candida albicans were assayed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gleb V Borkunov
- G.B. Elyakov Pacific Institute of Bioorganic Chemistry, Far Eastern Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences, 159 Prospect 100-Letiya Vladivostoka, Vladivostok, 690022, Russian Federation
- Far Eastern Federal University, Vladivostok, 690922, Russian Federation
| | - Elena V Leshchenko
- G.B. Elyakov Pacific Institute of Bioorganic Chemistry, Far Eastern Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences, 159 Prospect 100-Letiya Vladivostoka, Vladivostok, 690022, Russian Federation.
- Far Eastern Federal University, Vladivostok, 690922, Russian Federation.
| | - Dmitrii V Berdyshev
- G.B. Elyakov Pacific Institute of Bioorganic Chemistry, Far Eastern Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences, 159 Prospect 100-Letiya Vladivostoka, Vladivostok, 690022, Russian Federation
| | - Roman S Popov
- G.B. Elyakov Pacific Institute of Bioorganic Chemistry, Far Eastern Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences, 159 Prospect 100-Letiya Vladivostoka, Vladivostok, 690022, Russian Federation
| | - Ekaterina A Chingizova
- G.B. Elyakov Pacific Institute of Bioorganic Chemistry, Far Eastern Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences, 159 Prospect 100-Letiya Vladivostoka, Vladivostok, 690022, Russian Federation
| | - Nadezhda P Shlyk
- Far Eastern Federal University, Vladivostok, 690922, Russian Federation
| | - Andrey V Gerasimenko
- Institute of Chemistry, Far Eastern Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences, 159 Prospect 100-Letiya Vladivostoka, Vladivostok, 690022, Russian Federation
| | - Natalya N Kirichuk
- G.B. Elyakov Pacific Institute of Bioorganic Chemistry, Far Eastern Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences, 159 Prospect 100-Letiya Vladivostoka, Vladivostok, 690022, Russian Federation
| | - Yuliya V Khudyakova
- G.B. Elyakov Pacific Institute of Bioorganic Chemistry, Far Eastern Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences, 159 Prospect 100-Letiya Vladivostoka, Vladivostok, 690022, Russian Federation
| | - Viktoria E Chausova
- G.B. Elyakov Pacific Institute of Bioorganic Chemistry, Far Eastern Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences, 159 Prospect 100-Letiya Vladivostoka, Vladivostok, 690022, Russian Federation
| | - Alexandr S Antonov
- G.B. Elyakov Pacific Institute of Bioorganic Chemistry, Far Eastern Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences, 159 Prospect 100-Letiya Vladivostoka, Vladivostok, 690022, Russian Federation
| | - Anatoly I Kalinovsky
- G.B. Elyakov Pacific Institute of Bioorganic Chemistry, Far Eastern Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences, 159 Prospect 100-Letiya Vladivostoka, Vladivostok, 690022, Russian Federation
| | - Artur R Chingizov
- G.B. Elyakov Pacific Institute of Bioorganic Chemistry, Far Eastern Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences, 159 Prospect 100-Letiya Vladivostoka, Vladivostok, 690022, Russian Federation
| | - Ekaterina A Yurchenko
- G.B. Elyakov Pacific Institute of Bioorganic Chemistry, Far Eastern Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences, 159 Prospect 100-Letiya Vladivostoka, Vladivostok, 690022, Russian Federation
| | - Marina P Isaeva
- G.B. Elyakov Pacific Institute of Bioorganic Chemistry, Far Eastern Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences, 159 Prospect 100-Letiya Vladivostoka, Vladivostok, 690022, Russian Federation
| | - Anton N Yurchenko
- G.B. Elyakov Pacific Institute of Bioorganic Chemistry, Far Eastern Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences, 159 Prospect 100-Letiya Vladivostoka, Vladivostok, 690022, Russian Federation
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Chen HW, Wu XY, Zhao ZY, Huang ZQ, Lei XS, Yang GX, Li J, Xiong J, Hu JF. Terricoxanthones A-E, unprecedented dihydropyran-containing dimeric xanthones from the endophytic fungus Neurospora terricola HDF-Br-2 associated with the vulnerable conifer Pseudotsuga gaussenii. PHYTOCHEMISTRY 2024; 219:113963. [PMID: 38171409 DOI: 10.1016/j.phytochem.2023.113963] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/15/2023] [Revised: 12/27/2023] [Accepted: 12/30/2023] [Indexed: 01/05/2024]
Abstract
An investigation on the secondary metabolites from a rice culture broth of the endophytic fungus Neurospora terricola HDF-Br-2 derived from the vulnerable conifer Pseudotsuga gaussenii led to the isolation and characterization of 34 structurally diverse polyketides (1-34). Seven of them are previously undescribed, including five unprecedented dihydropyran-containing (terricoxanthones A-E, 1-5, resp.) and one rare tetrahydrofuran-containing (terricoxanthone F, 6) dimeric xanthones. The structures were elucidated by spectroscopic methods and single-crystal X-ray diffraction analyses. Terricoxanthones each were obtained as a racemic mixture. Their plausible biosynthetic relationships were briefly proposed. Compounds 6, aspergillusone A (8), and alatinone (27) displayed considerable inhibition against Candida albicans with MIC values of 8-16 μg/mL. 4-Hydroxyvertixanthone (12) and 27 exhibited significant inhibitory activities against Staphylococcus aureus, with MIC values of 4-8 μg/mL. Furthermore, compounds 8 and 27 could disrupt biofilm of S. aureus and C. albicans at 128 μg/mL. The findings not only extend the skeletons of xanthone dimers and contribute to the diversity of metabolites of endophytes associated with the endangered Chinese conifer P. gaussenii, but could further reveal the important role of protecting plant species diversity in support of chemical diversity and potential sources of new therapeutics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hao-Wei Chen
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Zhejiang Provincial Key Laboratory of Plant Evolutionary Ecology and Conservation, Taizhou University, Taizhou 318000, PR China; Department of Natural Medicine, School of Pharmacy, Fudan University, Shanghai 201203, PR China
| | - Xi-Ying Wu
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Zhejiang Provincial Key Laboratory of Plant Evolutionary Ecology and Conservation, Taizhou University, Taizhou 318000, PR China; Department of Natural Medicine, School of Pharmacy, Fudan University, Shanghai 201203, PR China
| | - Ze-Yu Zhao
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Zhejiang Provincial Key Laboratory of Plant Evolutionary Ecology and Conservation, Taizhou University, Taizhou 318000, PR China; Department of Natural Medicine, School of Pharmacy, Fudan University, Shanghai 201203, PR China
| | - Zi-Qi Huang
- Department of Natural Medicine, School of Pharmacy, Fudan University, Shanghai 201203, PR China
| | - Xin-Sheng Lei
- Department of Natural Medicine, School of Pharmacy, Fudan University, Shanghai 201203, PR China
| | - Guo-Xun Yang
- Department of Natural Medicine, School of Pharmacy, Fudan University, Shanghai 201203, PR China
| | - Jiyang Li
- Department of Natural Medicine, School of Pharmacy, Fudan University, Shanghai 201203, PR China
| | - Juan Xiong
- Department of Natural Medicine, School of Pharmacy, Fudan University, Shanghai 201203, PR China.
| | - Jin-Feng Hu
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Zhejiang Provincial Key Laboratory of Plant Evolutionary Ecology and Conservation, Taizhou University, Taizhou 318000, PR China; Department of Natural Medicine, School of Pharmacy, Fudan University, Shanghai 201203, PR China.
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Chen HW, Jiang CX, Ma GL, Wu XY, Jiang W, Li J, Zang Y, Li J, Xiong J, Hu JF. Unprecedented spirodioxynaphthalenes from the endophytic fungus Phyllosticta ligustricola HDF-L-2 derived from the endangered conifer Pseudotsuga gaussenii. PHYTOCHEMISTRY 2023; 211:113687. [PMID: 37105348 DOI: 10.1016/j.phytochem.2023.113687] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/04/2022] [Revised: 04/17/2023] [Accepted: 04/20/2023] [Indexed: 05/27/2023]
Abstract
Four undescribed palmarumycin-type spirodioxynaphthalenes (phyligustricins A-D) and a known biogenetic precursor (palmarumycin BG1) were isolated from a solid fermentation of Phyllosticta ligustricola HDF-L-2, an endophyte associated with the endangered Chinese conifer Pseudotsuga gaussenii. The structures were elucidated by spectroscopic methods, single-crystal X-ray diffraction analyses, and electronic circular dichroism calculations. Both phyligustricins A and B have an unprecedented spirodioxynaphthalene-derived skeleton containing an extra 4H-furo [3,2-c]pyran-4-one moiety, while phyligustricins C and D are p-hydroxy-phenethyl substituted spirodioxynaphthalenes. The plausible biosynthetic relationships of the isolates were briefly proposed. Phyligustricins C and D and palmarumycin BG1 showed considerable antibacterial activity against Staphylococcus aureus, each with an MIC value of 16 μg/mL. Palmarumycin BG1 displayed significant inhibitory effects against ACL and ACC1, with IC50 values of 1.60 and 8.00 μM, respectively.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hao-Wei Chen
- Department of Natural Medicine, School of Pharmacy, Fudan University, Shanghai, 201203, PR China
| | - Chun-Xiao Jiang
- Department of Natural Medicine, School of Pharmacy, Fudan University, Shanghai, 201203, PR China; School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Zhejiang Provincial Key Laboratory of Plant Evolutionary Ecology and Conservation, Taizhou University, Taizhou, 318000, PR China
| | - Guang-Lei Ma
- Department of Natural Medicine, School of Pharmacy, Fudan University, Shanghai, 201203, PR China
| | - Xi-Ying Wu
- Department of Natural Medicine, School of Pharmacy, Fudan University, Shanghai, 201203, PR China
| | - Wei Jiang
- Department of Natural Medicine, School of Pharmacy, Fudan University, Shanghai, 201203, PR China
| | - Jiyang Li
- Department of Natural Medicine, School of Pharmacy, Fudan University, Shanghai, 201203, PR China
| | - Yi Zang
- State Key Laboratory of Drug Research, Shanghai Institute of Materia Medica, Chinese Academy of Science, Shanghai, 201203, PR China
| | - Jia Li
- State Key Laboratory of Drug Research, Shanghai Institute of Materia Medica, Chinese Academy of Science, Shanghai, 201203, PR China
| | - Juan Xiong
- Department of Natural Medicine, School of Pharmacy, Fudan University, Shanghai, 201203, PR China.
| | - Jin-Feng Hu
- Department of Natural Medicine, School of Pharmacy, Fudan University, Shanghai, 201203, PR China; School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Zhejiang Provincial Key Laboratory of Plant Evolutionary Ecology and Conservation, Taizhou University, Taizhou, 318000, PR China.
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5
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Gamage CB, Lee K, Park SY, Varlı M, Lee CW, Kim SM, Zhou R, Pulat S, Yang Y, Taş İ, Hur JS, Kang KB, Kim H. Phthalides Isolated from the Endolichenic Arthrinium sp. EL000127 Exhibits Antiangiogenic Activity. ACS OMEGA 2023; 8:12548-12557. [PMID: 37033794 PMCID: PMC10077456 DOI: 10.1021/acsomega.3c00876] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/10/2023] [Accepted: 03/14/2023] [Indexed: 06/19/2023]
Abstract
Endolichenic fungi (ELF) produce specialized metabolites that have various medicinal properties. Inhibition of tumor angiogenesis efficaciously suppresses many types of cancer. This study aimed to discover novel antiangiogenic agents from specialized metabolite extracts of ELF strains isolated from Korean lichens. The EtOAc extracts of 51 ELF strains were subjected to a screening pipeline consisting of cell viability, scratch wound healing, and Transwell migration assays. The EtOAc extract of Arthrinium sp. EL000127 showed the most potent inhibitory activity against the chemotactic migration of human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVEC). Targeted isolation on the major LC-MS peaks exhibited a previously known phthalide, 3-O-methylcyclopolic acid (1), and two unknown analogues of 1, 3-O-phenylethylcyclopolic acid (2) and 3-O-p-hydroxyphenylethylcyclopolic acid (3). The structures were characterized by MS and NMR analyses. All the isolates were acquired and applied to bioassays as racemates due to spontaneous racemization. Among the isolates, compound 3 effectively inhibits HUVEC motility by suppressing mRNA expressions of genes regulating epithelial cell survival and motility, which suggested that compound 3 is a potent antiangiogenic agent suitable for further exploration as a potential novel therapeutic against cancers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chathurika
D. B. Gamage
- College
of Pharmacy, Sunchon National University, 255 Jungang-ro, Sunchon, Jeonnam 57922, Korea
| | - Kyungha Lee
- Research
Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, Sookmyung Women’s University, 100 Cheongpa-ro 47 gil, Seoul 04310, Korea
| | - So-Yeon Park
- College
of Pharmacy, Sunchon National University, 255 Jungang-ro, Sunchon, Jeonnam 57922, Korea
| | - Mücahit Varlı
- College
of Pharmacy, Sunchon National University, 255 Jungang-ro, Sunchon, Jeonnam 57922, Korea
| | - Chang Wook Lee
- College
of Pharmacy, Sunchon National University, 255 Jungang-ro, Sunchon, Jeonnam 57922, Korea
| | - Seong-Min Kim
- College
of Pharmacy, Sunchon National University, 255 Jungang-ro, Sunchon, Jeonnam 57922, Korea
| | - Rui Zhou
- College
of Pharmacy, Sunchon National University, 255 Jungang-ro, Sunchon, Jeonnam 57922, Korea
| | - Sultan Pulat
- College
of Pharmacy, Sunchon National University, 255 Jungang-ro, Sunchon, Jeonnam 57922, Korea
| | - Yi Yang
- College
of Pharmacy, Sunchon National University, 255 Jungang-ro, Sunchon, Jeonnam 57922, Korea
| | - İsa Taş
- College
of Pharmacy, Sunchon National University, 255 Jungang-ro, Sunchon, Jeonnam 57922, Korea
| | - Jae-Seoun Hur
- Korean
Lichen Research Institute, Sunchon National
University, 255 Jungang-ro, Sunchon, Jeonnam 57922, Korea
| | - Kyo Bin Kang
- Research
Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, Sookmyung Women’s University, 100 Cheongpa-ro 47 gil, Seoul 04310, Korea
| | - Hangun Kim
- College
of Pharmacy, Sunchon National University, 255 Jungang-ro, Sunchon, Jeonnam 57922, Korea
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Spiegel M, Sroka Z. Natural dihydroisobenzofuran derivatives as a template for promising radical scavengers: theoretical insights into structure–activity relationships, thermochemistry and kinetics. Theor Chem Acc 2022. [DOI: 10.1007/s00214-022-02922-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/17/2022]
Abstract
AbstractDihydroisobenzofuran heterocycle is a structural motif found in a number of medications with anti-tumour, anti-diabetic, and antibacterial activities. It is also found in a slew of natural substances, most notably fungus metabolites, which have been shown to possess credible radical scavenging activity. Density functional theory studies on three different derivatives were conducted to investigate their electronic structures as well as thermochemical and kinetic behaviour against ·OOH, ·OH, and ·OCH3 in biologically relevant solvents, with the goal of elucidating structure–activity relationships and discussing the potential role of the scaffolds as a template for new semisynthetic antioxidants. The importance of resonance and inductive effects, and also hydrogen bonding, has been underlined, but most importantly, it has been demonstrated that all structures have considerable scavenging potential against all studied radicals, with reactions rates close to the diffusion limit.
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Cyclopaldic Acid, the Main Phytotoxic Metabolite of Diplodia cupressi, Induces Programmed Cell Death and Autophagy in Arabidopsis thaliana. Toxins (Basel) 2022; 14:toxins14070474. [PMID: 35878212 PMCID: PMC9325063 DOI: 10.3390/toxins14070474] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/07/2022] [Revised: 06/30/2022] [Accepted: 07/07/2022] [Indexed: 01/12/2023] Open
Abstract
Cyclopaldic acid is one of the main phytotoxic metabolites produced by fungal pathogens of the genus Seiridium, causal agents, among others, of the canker disease of plants of the Cupressaceae family. Previous studies showed that the metabolite can partially reproduce the symptoms of the infection and that it is toxic to different plant species, thereby proving to be a non-specific phytotoxin. Despite the remarkable biological effects of the compound, which revealed also insecticidal, fungicidal and herbicidal properties, information about its mode of action is still lacking. In this study, we investigated the effects of cyclopaldic acid in Arabidopsis thaliana plants and protoplasts, in order to get information about subcellular targets and mechanism of action. Results of biochemical assays showed that cyclopaldic acid induced leaf chlorosis, ion leakage, membrane-lipid peroxidation, hydrogen peroxide production, inhibited root proton extrusion in vivo and plasma membrane H+-ATPase activity in vitro. qRT-PCR experiments demonstrated that the toxin elicited the transcription of key regulators of the immune response to necrotrophic fungi, of hormone biosynthesis, as well as of genes involved in senescence and programmed cell death. Confocal microscopy analysis of protoplasts allowed to address the question of subcellular targets of the toxin. Cyclopaldic acid targeted the plasma membrane H+-ATPase, inducing depolarization of the transmembrane potential, mitochondria, disrupting the mitochondrial network and eliciting overproduction of reactive oxygen species, and vacuole, determining tonoplast disgregation and induction of vacuole-mediated programmed cell death and autophagy.
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