Orthogonal binding and displacement of different guest types using a coordination cage host with cavity-based and surface-based binding sites

Synthesis of a Pd2L4 Hydrazone Molecular Cage Through Multiple Reaction Pathways

Molecular cages are preorganized molecules with a central cavity, typically formed through the reaction of their building blocks through chemical bonds. This requires, in most cases, forming and breaking reversible bonds during the cage formation reaction pathway for error correction to drive the reaction to the cage product. In this work, we focus on both Pd-ligand and hydrazone bonds implemented in the structure of a Pd2L4 hydrazone molecular cage. As the cage contains two different types of reversible bonds, we envisaged a cage formation comparative study by performing the synthesis of the cage through three different reaction pathways involving the formation of Pd-ligand bonds, hydrazone bonds, or a combination of both. The three reaction pathways produce the cage with yields ranging from 73% to 79%. Despite the complexity of the reaction, the cage is formed in a high yield, even for the reaction pathway that involves the formation of 16 bonds. This research paves the way for more sophisticated cage designs through complex reaction pathways.

New insights into coordination-cage based catalysis

This review article summarises work from the author's group on catalysis using coordination cages over the (approximate) period 2018-2024. Recent insights discussed include (i) the general mechanism of catalysis, which involves co-location of reaction partners using orthogonal interactions involving the cage cavity (neutral hydrophobic substrates) and the surface anion-based reaction partners; (ii) the role of the cage exterior surface in facilitating catalysis in some cases; (iii) quantitative analysis of anion-binding to the cage surface, as a complement to measurement of binding constants of neutral guests inside the cavity; (iv) a new type of redox-based catalysis using reactive oxygen species, which are generated by reaction of oxidants such as H2O2 and HSO5- with Co(II)/Co(III) redox couples in the cage superstructure. Collectively the results discussed provide signficant new possibilities for further exploration of catalysis using supramolecular assemblies.

Coordination-cage binding and catalysed hydrolysis of organophosphorus chemical warfare agent simulants

The use of organophosphorus chemical warfare agents still remains an ongoing global threat. Here we investigate the binding of small-molecule organic guests including phosphate esters, sulfonate esters, carbonate esters and a sulfite ester - some of which act as simulants for organophosphorus chemical warfare agents - in the cavity of a water-soluble coordination cage. For several of these guest species, binding constants in the range 102 to 103 M-1 were determined in water/DMSO (98 : 2 v/v) solution, through a combination of fluorescence and 1H NMR spectroscopy, and subsequent fitting of titration data to a 1 : 1 binding isotherm model. For three cage/guest complexes crystallographic structure determinations were possible: in two cases (with guests phenyl methanesulfonate and phenyl propyl carbonate) the guest lies inside the cavity, forming a range of CH⋯O hydrogen-bonding interactions with the cage interior surface involving CH groups on the cationic cage surface that act as H-bond donors and O atoms on the guests that act as H-bond acceptors. In a third case, with the guest 4-nitrophenyl-methanesulfonate, the guest lies in the spaces outside a cage cavity between cages and forms weak CH⋯O interactions with the cage exterior surface: the cavity is occupied by a network of H-bonded water molecules, though this guest does show cavity binding in solution. For the isomeric guests 4-nitrophenyl-methanesulfonate and 4-nitrophenyl methyl sulfite, hydrolysis in water/DMSO (98 : 2 v/v) could be monitored colorimetrically via appearance of the 4-nitrophenolate anion; both showed accelerated hydrolysis rates in the presence of the host cage with second-order rate constants for the catalysed reactions in the range 10-3 to 10-2 M-1 s-1 at pH 9. The typical rate dependence on external pH and the increased reaction rates when chloride ions are present (which can bind inside the cavity and displace other cavity-bound guests) imply that the catalysed reaction actually occurs at the external surface of the cage rather than inside the cavity.

Photoswitching of Co(ii)-based coordination cages containing azobenzene backbones

Inclusion of photoswitchable azobenzene units as spacers into ditopic bridging ligands Lm and Lp, containing two chelating pyrazolyl-pyridine termini, allows formation of metal complex assemblies with Co(ii) that undergo a range of light-induced structural transformations. One notable result is the light-induced conversion of a Co2(Lp)3 dinuclear triple helicate (based on the E ligand isomer) to a C 3-symmetric Co4(Lp)6 assembly, assumed to be an edge-bridged tetrahedral cage, based on the Z ligand isomer. Another is the preparation of a series of Co4(Lm)6 complexes, of which Co4(E-Lm)6 was crystallographically characterised and consists of a pair of Co2(Lm)2 double helicates connected by an additional two bridging ligands which span the pair of helicate units, giving a cyclic Co4 array in which one and then two bridging ligands alternate around the periphery. A set of Co4(Lm)6 complexes could be prepared containing different ratios of Z : E ligand isomers (0 : 6, 2 : 4, 4 : 2 and 6 : 0) of which Co4(Z-Lm)2(E-Lm)4 was particularly stable and dominated the speciation behaviour, either during light-induced switching of the ligand geometry in pre-formed complexes, or when ligand isomers were combined in different proportions during the preparation. These examples of (i) interconversion between Co2L3 (helicate) and (ii) Co4L6 (cage) assemblies with Lp, and the interconversion between a series of Co4L6 assemblies Co4(Z-Lm)n(E-Lm)6-n with Lm, constitute significant advances in the field of photoswitchable supramolecular assemblies.

A Study on Auto-Catalysis and Product Inhibition: A Nucleophilic Aromatic Substitution Reaction Catalysed within the Cavity of an Octanuclear Coordination Cage

The ability of an octanuclear cubic coordination cage to catalyse a nucleophilic aromatic substitution reaction on a cavity-bound guest was studied with 2,4-dinitrofluorobenzene (DNFB) as the guest/substrate. It was found that DNFB undergoes a catalysed reaction with hydroxide ions within the cavity of the cubic cage (in aqueous buffer solution, pH 8.6). The rate enhancement of kcat/kuncat was determined to be 22, with cavity binding of the guest being required for catalysis to occur. The product, 2,4-dinitrophenolate (DNP), remained bound within the cavity due to electrostatic stabilisation and exerts two apparently contradictory effects: it initially auto-catalyses the reaction when present at low concentrations, but at higher concentrations inhibits catalysis when a pair of DNP guests block the cavity. When encapsulated, the UV/Vis absorption spectrum of DNP is red-shifted when compared to the spectrum of free DNP in aqueous solution. Further investigations using other aromatic guests determined that a similar red-shift on cavity binding also occurred for 4-nitrophenolate (4NP) at pH 8.6. The red-shift was used to determine the stoichiometry of guest binding of DNP and 4NP within the cage cavity, which was confirmed by structural analysis with X-ray crystallography; and was also used to perform catalytic kinetic studies in the solution-state.

Encapsulated Dye in Coordination-Assembled Octahedron for Visible-Light-Driven Proton Reduction and Nitroaromatic Hydrogenation

To mimic the finely tuned natural photosynthetic systems, a large metal-organic octahedron was synthesized by one-pot self-assembly with modified triphenylamine ligands and redox-active cobalt ions. By encapsulating an organic dye, fluorescein (Fl), within the inner cavity of the octahedron, the host-guest supramolecular system was provided for light-driven hydrogen production. The intimate distance between the redox site and the photosensitizer in the supramolecular metal-organic cage allowed the photoinduced electrons to transfer from the excited state Fl* to the redox cobalt center in a pseudo-intramolecular pathway. The supramolecular system showed good performance in light-driven hydrogen production and the reduction of nitroaromatic compounds. Control experiments based on a mononuclear compound resembling a cobalt corner of the octahedron and inhibitor competition provided evidence of enzyme-like catalytic behavior. The supramolecular reaction pathways within confined spaces contribute to the superior activity of the host-guest system.

A CuI6L4 Cage Dynamically Reconfigures to Form Suit[4]anes and Selectively Bind Fluorinated Steroids

Simple organic ligands can self-assemble with metal ions to generate metal-organic cages, whose cavities bind guests selectively. This binding may enable new methods of chemical separation or sensing, among other useful functions. Here we report the preparation of a CuI6L4 pseudo-octahedral metal-organic cage, the ligands of which self-assemble from simple organic building blocks. Temperature, solvent, and the presence of different guests governed which structure predominated from a dynamic mixture of cage diastereomers with different arrangements of right- or left-handed metal vertices. Dissolution in dimethyl sulfoxide or the binding of tetrahedral guests led to a chiral tetrahedral T-symmetric framework, whereas low temperatures favored the achiral S4-symmetric diastereomer. Tetrahedral guests with long arms were encapsulated to form mechanically bonded suit[4]anes, with guest arms protruding out through host windows. The cage was also observed to bind fluorinated steroids, an important class of drug molecules, but not non-fluorinated steroids, providing the basis for new separation processes.

54 K Spin Transition Temperature Shift in a Fe6L4 Octahedral Cage Induced by Optimal Fitted Multiple Guests

Spin-crossover (SCO) coordination cages are at the forefront of research for their potential in crafting next-generation molecular devices. However, due to the scarcity of SCO hosts and their own limited cavities, the interplay between the SCO host and the multiple guests binding has remained elusive. In this contribution, we present a family of pseudo-octahedral coordination cages (M6L4, M = ZnII, CoII, FeII, and NiII) assembled from a tritopic tridentate ligand L with metal ions. The utilization of FeII ion leads to the successful creation of the Fe6L4-type SCO cage. Host-guest studies of these M6L4 cages reveal their capacity to encapsulate four adamantine-based guests. Notably, the spin transition temperature T1/2 of Fe6L4 is dependent on the multiple guests encapsulated. The inclusion of adamantine yields an unprecedented T1/2 shift of 54 K, a record shift in guest-mediated SCO coordination cages to date. This drastic shift is ascribed to the synergistic effect of multiple guests coupled with their optimal fit within the host. Through a straightforward thermodynamic cycle, the binding affinities of the high-spin (HS) and low-spin (LS) states are separated from their apparent binding constant. This result indicates that the LS state has a stronger binding affinity for the multiple guests than the HS state. Exploring the SCO thermodynamics of host-guest complexes allows us to examine the optimal fit of multiple guests to the host cavity. This study reveals that the T1/2 of the SCO host can be manipulated by the encapsulation of multiple guests, and the SCO cage is an ideal candidate for determining the multiple guest fit.

Catalytic Inhibition of Base-Mediated Reactivity by a Self-Assembled Metal-Ligand Host

Spacious M4 L6 tetrahedra can act as catalytic inhibitors for base-mediated reactions. Upon adding only 5 % of a self-assembled Fe4 L6 cage complex, the conversion of the conjugate addition between ethylcyanoacetate and β-nitrostyrene catalyzed by proton sponge can be reduced from 83 % after 75 mins at ambient temperature to <1 % under identical conditions. The mechanism of the catalytic inhibition is unusual: the octacationic Fe4 L6 cage increases the acidity of exogenous water in the acetonitrile reaction solvent by favorably binding the conjugate acid of the basic catalyst. The inhibition only occurs for Fe4 L6 hosts with spacious internal cavities: minimal inhibition is seen with smaller tetrahedra or Fe2 L3 helicates. The surprising tendency of the cationic cage to preferentially bind protonated, cationic ammonium guests is quantified via the comprehensive modeling of spectrophotometric titration datasets.

An artificial light-harvesting system constructed from a water-soluble metal-organic barrel for photocatalytic aerobic reactions in aqueous media

An artificial light-harvesting system constructed from a water-soluble host-guest complex can be regarded as a high-level conceptual model of its biological counterpart and can convert solar energy into chemical energy in an aqueous environment. Herein, a water-soluble metal-organic barrel Ga-tpe with twelve sulfonic acid units was obtained by subcomponent self-assembly between Ga3+ ions and tetra-topic ligands with tetraphenylethylene (TPE) cores. By taking advantage of host-guest interactions, cationic dye rhodamine B (RB) was constrained in the pocket of Ga-tpe to promote the Förster resonance energy transfer (FRET) process for efficient photocatalytic aerobic oxidation of sulfides and cross-dehydrogenative coupling (CDC) reaction in aqueous media.

The preservation of sarin and O,O'-diisopropyl fluorophosphate inside coordination cage hosts

The host-guest chemistry of O,O'-diisopropyl fluorophosphate (DFP), a phosphonofluoridate G-series chemical warfare agent simulant, was investigated in the presence of a number of octanuclear cubic coordination cage hosts. The aim was to demonstrate cage-catalysed hydrolysis of DFP at near neutral pH: however, two octanuclear coordination cages, HPEG (containing water-solubilising PEG groups) and HW (containing water-solubilising hydroxymethyl groups), were actually found to increase the lifetime of DFP in aqueous buffer solution (pH 8.7). Crystallographic analysis of DFP with a structurally related host cage revealed that DFP binds to windows in the cage surface, not in the internal cavity. The phosphorus-fluorine bond is directed into the cavity rather than towards the external environment, with the cage/DFP association protecting DFP from hydrolysis. Initial studies with the chemical warfare agent (CWA) sarin (GB) with HPEG cage in a buffered solution also showed a drastically reduced rate of hydrolysis for sarin when bound in the host cage. The ability of these cages to inhibit hydrolysis of these P-F bond containing organophosphorus guests, by encapsulation, may have applications in forensic sample preservation and analysis.

A chemiluminescent lantern: a coordination cage catalysed oxidation of luminol followed by chemiluminescence resonance energy-transfer

A molecule of luminol bound as guest inside a Co₈ coordination cage host undergoes oxidation by H₂O₂ to generate chemiluminescence by a process in which the Co(II) ions in the cage superstructure activate the H₂O₂: accordingly the cage not only co-locates the reactants but also acts as a redox partner in the catalysis. The luminescence from oxidation of the cavity-bound luminol can transfer its excitation energy to surface-bound fluorescein molecules in an unusual example of Chemiluminescence Resonance Energy Transfer (CRET).

Water-Soluble Metallo-Supramolecular Nanoreactors for Mediating Visible-Light-Promoted Cross-Dehydrogenative Coupling Reactions

Water-soluble metallo-supramolecular cages with well-defined nanosized cavities have a wide range of functions and applications. Herein, we design and synthesize two series of metallo-supramolecular octahedral cages based on the self-assembly of two congeneric truxene-derived tripyridyl ligands modified with two polyethylene glycol (PEG) chains, i.e., monodispersed tetraethylene glycol (TEG) and polydispersed PEG-1000, with four divalent transition metals (i.e., Pd, Cu, Ni, and Zn). The resulting monodispersed cages C1-C4 are fully characterized by electrospray ionization mass spectrometry (ESI-MS), nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy, and single-crystal X-ray diffraction. The polydispersed cages C5-C8 display good water solubilities and can act as nanoreactors to mediate visible-light-promoted C(sp³)-C(sp²) cross-dehydrogenative coupling reactions in an aqueous phase. In particular, the most robust Pd(II)-linked water-soluble polydispersed nanoreactor C5 is characterized by ESI-MS and capable of mediating the reactions with the highest efficiencies. Detailed host-guest binding studies in conjunction with control studies suggest that these cages could encapsulate the substrates simultaneously inside its hydrophobic cavity while interacting with the photosensitizer (i.e., eosin Y).

Highly efficient Förster resonance energy transfer between an emissive tetraphenylethylene-based metal-organic cage and the encapsulated dye guest

The host-guest strategy presents an ideal way to achieve efficient Förster resonance energy transfer (FRET) by forcing close proximity between an energy donor and acceptor. Herein, by encapsulating the negatively charged acceptor dyes eosin Y (EY) or sulforhodamine 101 (SR101) in the cationic tetraphenylethene-based emissive cage-like host donor Zn-1, host-guest complexes were formed that exhibit highly efficient FRET. The energy transfer efficiency of Zn-1⊃EY reached 82.4%. To better verify the occurrence of the FRET process and make full use of the harvested energy, Zn-1⊃EY was successfully used as a photochemical catalyst for the dehalogenation of α-bromoacetophenone. Furthermore, the emission color of the host-guest system Zn-1⊃SR101 could be adjusted to exhibit bright white-light emission with the CIE coordinates (0.32, 0.33). This work details a promising approach to enhance the efficiency of the FRET process by the creation of a host-guest system between the cage-like host and dye acceptor, thus serving as a versatile platform for mimicking natural light-harvesting systems.

Disentangling contributions to guest binding inside a coordination cage host: analysis of a set of isomeric guests with differing polarities

Binding of a set of three isomeric guests (1,2-, 1,3- and 1,4-dicyanobenzene, abbreviated DCB) inside an octanuclear cubic coordination cage host H (bearing different external substitutents according to solvent used) has been studied in water/dmso (98 : 2) and CD₂Cl₂. These guests have essentially identical molecular surfaces, volumes and external functional groups to interact with the cage interior surface; but they differ in polarity with dipole moments of ca. 7, 4 and 0 Debye respectively. In CD₂Cl₂ guest binding is weak but we observe a clear correlation of binding free energy with guest polarity, with 1,4-DCB showing no detectable binding by NMR spectroscopy but 1,2-DCB having −ΔG = 9 kJ mol⁻¹. In water (containing 2% dmso to solubilise the guests) we see the same trend but all binding free energies are much higher due to an additional hydrophobic contribution to binding, with −ΔG varying from 16 kJ mol⁻¹ for 1,4-DCB to 22 kJ mol⁻¹ for 1,4-DCB: again we see an increase associated with guest polarity but the increase in −ΔG per Debye of dipole moment is around half what we observe in CD₂Cl₂ which we ascribe to the fact the more polar guests will be better solvated in the aqueous solvent. A van't Hoff analysis by variable-temperature NMR showed that the improvement in guest binding in water/dmso is entropy-driven, which suggests that the key factor is not direct electrostatic interactions between a polar guest and the cage surface, but the variation in guest desolvation across the series, with the more polar (and hence more highly solvated) guests having a greater favourable entropy change on desolvation.

The three dicyanobenzene isomers have obvious similarities but differ in their dipole moment: effects on binding in a coordination cage host in different solvents are discussed.

Inside or outside the box? Effect of substrate location on coordination-cage based catalysis

In this work we compare and contrast the hydrolysis of two different aromatic esters using an octanuclear cubic Co8 coordination cage host as the catalyst. Diacetyl fluorescein (DAF) is too large to bind inside the cage cavity, but in aqueous solution it interacts with the exterior surface of the cage via a hydrophobic interaction with K = 1.5(2) × 104 M-1. This is sufficient to bring it into close proximity to the layer of hydroxide ions which also surrounds the 16+ cage surface even at modest pH values, accelerating the hydrolysis of DAF to fluorescein with kcat/kuncat (the rate acceleration for that fraction of DAF in contact with the cage surface in the equilibrium) ≈50. This is far smaller than many known examples of catalysis inside a cage cavity, but at the exterior surface it is potentially general with no cavity-imposed size/shape limitations for guest binding. In contrast 4-nitrophenyl acetate (4NPA) binds inside the cage cavity with K = 3.5(3) × 103 M-1 and as such is surrounded in solution by the hydroxide ions which accumulate around the cage surface. However its hydrolysis is actually inhibited: either because of a geometrically unfavourable geometry of the bound substrate which makes it inaccessible to surface-bound hydroxide, or because the necessary volume expansion/geometry change associated with formation of a tetrahedral intermediate cannot be accommodated inside the cavity. Any 4NPA that is free in solution as part of the equilibrium undergoes catalysed hydrolysis at the cage exterior surface in the same way as DAF, but the effect is limited by the low affinity of 4NPA for the exterior surface. We conclude that exterior-surface catalysis can be effective and potentially general; and that cavity-binding of guests can result in negative, rather than positive, catalysis.

Adaptive coordination assemblies based on a flexible tetraazacyclododecane ligand for promoting carbon dioxide fixation

Coordination hosts based on flexible ligands have received increasing attention due to their inherent adaptive cavities that often show induced-fit guest binding and catalysis like enzymes. Herein, we report the controlled self-assembly of a series of homo/heterometallic coordination hosts (Me₄enPd)_2n(ML)_n [n = 2/3; M = Zn(ii)/Co(ii)/Ni(ii)/Cu(ii)/Pd(ii)/Ag(i); Me₄en: N,N,N′,N′-tetramethylethylenediamine] with different shapes (tube/cage) from a flexible tetraazacyclododecane-based pyridinyl ligand (L) and cis-blocking Me₄enPd(ii) units. While the Ag(i)-metalated ligand (AgL) gave rise to the formation of a (Me₄enPd)₄(ML)₂-type cage, all other M(ii) ions led to isostructural (Me₄enPd)₆(ML)₃-type tubular complexes. Structural transformations between cages and tubes could be realized through transmetalation of the ligand. The buffering effect on the ML panels endows the coordination tubes with remarkable acid–base resistance, which makes the (Me₄enPd)₆(ZnL)₃ host an effective catalyst for the CO₂ to CO₃²⁻ conversion. Control experiments suggested that the integration of multiple active Zn(ii) sites on the tubular host and the perfect geometry match between CO₃²⁻ and the cavity synergistically promoted such a conversion. Our results provide an important strategy for the design of adaptive coordination hosts to achieve efficient carbon fixation.

A series of coordination hosts were prepared and their applications in CO₂ fixation were studied.

Interaction of anions with the surface of a coordination cage in aqueous solution probed by their effect on a cage-catalysed Kemp elimination

An octanuclear M8L12 coordination cage catalyses the Kemp elimination reaction of 5-nitro-1,2-benzisoxazole (NBI) with hydroxide to give 2-cyano-4-nitrophenolate (CNP) as the product. In contrast to the previously-reported very efficient catalysis of the Kemp elimination reaction of unsubstituted benzisoxazole, which involves the substrate binding inside the cage cavity, the catalysed reaction of NBI with hydroxide is slower and occurs at the external surface of the cage, even though NBI can bind inside the cage cavity. The rate of the catalysed reaction is sensitive to the presence of added anions, which bind to the 16+ cage surface, displacing the hydroxide ions from around the cage which are essential reaction partners in the Kemp elimination. Thus we can observe different binding affinities of anions to the surface of the cationic cage in aqueous solution by the extent to which they displace hydroxide and thereby inhibit the catalysed Kemp elimination and slow down the appearance of CNP. For anions with a -1 charge the observed affinity order for binding to the cage surface is consistent with their ease of desolvation and their ordering in the Hofmeister series. With anions that are significantly basic (fluoride, hydrogen carbonate, carboxylates) the accumulation of the anion around the cage surface accelerates the Kemp elimination compared to the background reaction with hydroxide, which we ascribe to the ability of these anions to participate directly in the Kemp elimination. This work provides valuable mechanistic insights into the role of the cage in co-locating the substrate and the anionic reaction partners in a cage-catalysed reaction.