Tuneable synthetic reduced graphene oxide scaffolds elicit high levels of three-dimensional glioblastoma interconnectivity in vitro

Graphene- and MXene-based materials for neuroscience: diagnostic and therapeutic applications

MXenes and graphene are two-dimensional materials that have gained increasing attention in neuroscience, particularly in sensing, theranostics, and biomedical engineering. Various composites of graphene and MXenes with fascinating thermal, optical, magnetic, mechanical, and electrical properties have been introduced to develop advanced nanosystems for diagnostic and therapeutic applications, as exemplified in the case of biosensors for neurotransmitter detection. These biosensors display high sensitivity, selectivity, and stability, making them promising tools for neuroscience research. MXenes have been employed to create high-resolution neural interfaces for neuroelectronic devices, develop neuro-receptor-mediated synapse devices, and stimulate the electrophysiological maturation of neural circuits. On the other hand, graphene/derivatives exhibit therapeutic applicability in neuroscience, as exemplified in the case of graphene oxide for targeted delivery of therapeutic agents to the brain. While MXenes and graphene have potential benefits in neuroscience, there are also challenges/limitations associated with their use, such as toxicity, environmental impacts, and limited understanding of their properties. In addition, large-scale production and commercialization as well as optimization of reaction/synthesis conditions and clinical translation studies are very important aspects. Thus, it is important to consider the use of these materials in neuroscience research and conduct further research to obtain an in-depth understanding of their properties and potential applications. By addressing issues related to biocompatibility, long-term stability, targeted delivery, electrical interfaces, scalability, and cost-effectiveness, MXenes and graphene have the potential to greatly advance the field of neuroscience and pave the way for innovative diagnostic and therapeutic approaches for neurological disorders. Herein, recent advances in therapeutic and diagnostic applications of graphene- and MXene-based materials in neuroscience are discussed, focusing on important challenges and future prospects.

Dynamics of reduced graphene oxide: synthesis and structural models

Technological advancements are leading to an upsurge in demand for functional materials that satisfy several of humankind's needs. In addition to this, the current global drive is to develop materials with high efficacy in intended applications whilst practising green chemistry principles to ensure sustainability. Carbon-based materials, such as reduced graphene oxide (RGO), in particular, can possibly meet this criterion because they can be derived from waste biomass (a renewable material), possibly synthesised at low temperatures without the use of hazardous chemicals, and are biodegradable (owing to their organic nature), among other characteristics. Additionally, RGO as a carbon-based material is gaining momentum in several applications due to its lightweight, nontoxicity, excellent flexibility, tuneable band gap (from reduction), higher electrical conductivity (relative to graphene oxide, GO), low cost (owing to the natural abundance of carbon), and potentially facile and scalable synthesis protocols. Despite these attributes, the possible structures of RGO are still numerous with notable critical variations and the synthesis procedures have been dynamic. Herein, we summarize the highlights from the historical breakthroughs in understanding the structure of RGO (from the perspective of GO) and the recent state-of-the-art synthesis protocols, covering the period from 2020 to 2023. These are key aspects in the realisation of the full potential of RGO materials through the tailoring of physicochemical properties and reproducibility. The reviewed work highlights the merits and prospects of the physicochemical properties of RGO toward achieving sustainable, environmentally friendly, low-cost, and high-performing materials at a large scale for use in functional devices/processes to pave the way for commercialisation. This can drive the sustainability and commercial viability aspects of RGO as a material.

Recent advances and challenges in graphene-based nanocomposite scaffolds for tissue engineering application

Graphene-based nanocomposites have recently attracted increasing attention in tissue engineering because of their extraordinary features. These biocompatible substances, in the presence of an apt microenvironment, can stimulate and sustain the growth and differentiation of stem cells into different lineages. This review discusses the characteristics of graphene and its derivatives, such as their excellent electrical signal transduction, carrier mobility, outstanding mechanical strength with improving surface characteristics, self-lubrication, antiwear properties, enormous specific surface area, and ease of functional group modification. Moreover, safety issues in the application of graphene and its derivatives in terms of biocompatibility, toxicity, and interaction with immune cells are discussed. We also describe the applicability of graphene-based nanocomposites in tissue healing and organ regeneration, particularly in the bone, cartilage, teeth, neurons, heart, skeletal muscle, and skin. The impacts of special textural and structural characteristics of graphene-based nanomaterials on the regeneration of various tissues are highlighted. Finally, the present review gives some hints on future research for the transformation of these exciting materials in clinical studies.