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Chavan SG, Rathod PR, Koyappayil A, Hwang S, Lee MH. Recent advances of electrochemical and optical point-of-care biosensors for detecting neurotransmitter serotonin biomarkers. Biosens Bioelectron 2024; 267:116743. [PMID: 39270361 DOI: 10.1016/j.bios.2024.116743] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/29/2024] [Revised: 08/16/2024] [Accepted: 09/03/2024] [Indexed: 09/15/2024]
Abstract
Since its discovery in 1984, the monoamine serotonin (5-HT) has been recognized for its critical role as a neuromodulator in both the central and peripheral nervous systems. Recent research reveals that serotonin also significantly influences various neuronal activities. Historically, it was believed that peripheral serotonin, produced by tryptophan hydroxylase in intestinal cells, functioned primarily as a hormone. However, new insights have expanded its known roles, necessitating advanced detection methods. Biosensors have emerged as indispensable tools in biomedical diagnostics, enabling the rapid and minimally invasive detection of target analytes with high spatial and temporal resolution. This review summarizes the progress made in the past decade in developing optical and electrochemical biosensors for serotonin detection. We evaluate various sensing strategies that optimize performance in terms of detection limits, sensitivity, and specificity. The study also explores recent innovations in biosensing technologies utilizing surface-modified electrodes with nanomaterials, including gold, graphite, carbon nanotubes, and metal oxide particles. Applications range from in vivo studies to chemical imaging and diagnostics, highlighting future prospects in the field.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sachin Ganpat Chavan
- School of Integrative Engineering, Chung-Ang University, 84 Heuseok-ro, Dongjak-Gu, Seoul 06974, South Korea
| | - Pooja Ramrao Rathod
- School of Integrative Engineering, Chung-Ang University, 84 Heuseok-ro, Dongjak-Gu, Seoul 06974, South Korea
| | - Aneesh Koyappayil
- School of Integrative Engineering, Chung-Ang University, 84 Heuseok-ro, Dongjak-Gu, Seoul 06974, South Korea
| | - Seowoo Hwang
- School of Integrative Engineering, Chung-Ang University, 84 Heuseok-ro, Dongjak-Gu, Seoul 06974, South Korea
| | - Min-Ho Lee
- School of Integrative Engineering, Chung-Ang University, 84 Heuseok-ro, Dongjak-Gu, Seoul 06974, South Korea.
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Ino K, Konno A, Utagawa Y, Kanno T, Iwase K, Abe H, Shiku H. Fabrication of Two-Layer Microfluidic Devices with Porous Electrodes Using Printed Sacrificial Layers. MICROMACHINES 2024; 15:1054. [PMID: 39203705 PMCID: PMC11356774 DOI: 10.3390/mi15081054] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/02/2024] [Revised: 08/16/2024] [Accepted: 08/16/2024] [Indexed: 09/03/2024]
Abstract
Two-layer microfluidic devices with porous membranes have been widely used in bioapplications such as microphysiological systems (MPS). Porous electrodes, instead of membranes, have recently been incorporated into devices for electrochemical cell analysis. Generally, microfluidic channels are prepared using soft lithography and assembled into two-layer microfluidic devices. In addition to soft lithography, three-dimensional (3D) printing has been widely used for the direct fabrication of microfluidic devices because of its high flexibility. However, this technique has not yet been applied to the fabrication of two-layer microfluidic devices with porous electrodes. This paper proposes a novel fabrication process for this type of device. In brief, Pluronic F-127 ink was three-dimensionally printed in the form of sacrificial layers. A porous Au electrode, fabricated by sputtering Au on track-etched polyethylene terephthalate membranes, was placed between the top and bottom sacrificial layers. After covering with polydimethylsiloxane, the sacrificial layers were removed by flushing with a cold solution. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first report on the sacrificial approach-based fabrication of two-layer microfluidic devices with a porous electrode. Furthermore, the device was used for electrochemical assays of serotonin and could successfully measure concentrations up to 5 µM. In the future, this device can be used for MPS applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kosuke Ino
- Graduate School of Engineering, Tohoku University, 6-6-11-604 Aramaki-aza Aoba, Aoba-ku, Sendai 980-8579, Japan
| | - An Konno
- Graduate School of Environmental Studies, Tohoku University, 6-6-11-604 Aramaki-aza Aoba, Aoba-ku, Sendai 980-8579, Japan
| | - Yoshinobu Utagawa
- Graduate School of Engineering, Tohoku University, 6-6-11-604 Aramaki-aza Aoba, Aoba-ku, Sendai 980-8579, Japan
| | - Taiyo Kanno
- Graduate School of Engineering, Tohoku University, 6-6-11-604 Aramaki-aza Aoba, Aoba-ku, Sendai 980-8579, Japan
| | - Kazuyuki Iwase
- Institute of Multidisciplinary Research for Advanced Materials, Tohoku University, Sendai 980-8577, Japan
| | - Hiroya Abe
- Graduate School of Engineering, Tohoku University, 6-6-11-604 Aramaki-aza Aoba, Aoba-ku, Sendai 980-8579, Japan
- Frontier Research Institute for Interdisciplinary Sciences, Tohoku University, Aramaki-aza Aoba 6-3, Aoba-ku, Sendai 980-8578, Japan
| | - Hitoshi Shiku
- Graduate School of Engineering, Tohoku University, 6-6-11-604 Aramaki-aza Aoba, Aoba-ku, Sendai 980-8579, Japan
- Graduate School of Environmental Studies, Tohoku University, 6-6-11-604 Aramaki-aza Aoba, Aoba-ku, Sendai 980-8579, Japan
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Han J, Ho TW, Stine JM, Overton SN, Herberholz J, Ghodssi R. Simultaneous Dopamine and Serotonin Monitoring in Freely Moving Crayfish Using a Wireless Electrochemical Sensing System. ACS Sens 2024; 9:2346-2355. [PMID: 38713172 DOI: 10.1021/acssensors.3c02304] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/08/2024]
Abstract
Dopamine (DA) and serotonin (5-HT) are neurotransmitters that regulate a wide range of physiological and behavioral processes. Monitoring of both neurotransmitters with real-time analysis offers important insight into the mechanisms that shape animal behavior. However, bioelectronic tools to simultaneously monitor DA and 5-HT interactive dynamics in freely moving animals are underdeveloped. This is mainly due to the limited sensor sensitivity with miniaturized electronics. Here, we present a semi-implantable electrochemical device achieved by integrating a multi-surface-modified carbon fiber microelectrode with a miniaturized potentiostat module to detect DA and 5-HT in vivo with high sensitivity and selectivity. Specifically, carbon fiber microelectrodes were modified through electrochemical treatment and surface coatings to improve sensitivity, selectivity, and antifouling properties. A customized, lightweight potentiostat module was developed for untethered electrochemical measurements. Integrated with the microelectrode, the microsystem is compact (2.8 × 2.3 × 2.1 cm) to minimize its impacts on animal behavior and achieved simultaneous detection of DA and 5-HT with sensitivities of 48.4 and 133.0 nA/μM, respectively, within submicromolar ranges. The system was attached to the crayfish dorsal carapace, allowing electrode implantation into the heart of a crayfish to monitor DA and 5-HT dynamics, followed by drug injections. The semi-implantable biosensor system displayed a significant increase in oxidation peak currents after DA and 5-HT injections. The device successfully demonstrated the application for in vivo simultaneous monitoring of DA and 5-HT in the hemolymph (i.e., blood) of freely behaving crayfish underwater, yielding a valuable experimental tool to expand our understanding of the comodulation of DA and 5-HT.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jinjing Han
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of Maryland, College Park, Maryland 20742, United States
- Institute for Systems Research, University of Maryland, College Park, Maryland 20742, United States
- Robert E. Fischell Institute for Biomedical Devices, University of Maryland, College Park, Maryland 20742, United States
| | - Ta-Wen Ho
- Department of Psychology, University of Maryland, College Park, Maryland 20742, United States
- Program in Neuroscience and Cognitive Science, University of Maryland, College Park, Maryland 20742, United States
| | - Justin M Stine
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of Maryland, College Park, Maryland 20742, United States
- Institute for Systems Research, University of Maryland, College Park, Maryland 20742, United States
- Robert E. Fischell Institute for Biomedical Devices, University of Maryland, College Park, Maryland 20742, United States
| | - Sydney N Overton
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of Maryland, College Park, Maryland 20742, United States
- Institute for Systems Research, University of Maryland, College Park, Maryland 20742, United States
- Robert E. Fischell Institute for Biomedical Devices, University of Maryland, College Park, Maryland 20742, United States
| | - Jens Herberholz
- Department of Psychology, University of Maryland, College Park, Maryland 20742, United States
- Program in Neuroscience and Cognitive Science, University of Maryland, College Park, Maryland 20742, United States
| | - Reza Ghodssi
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of Maryland, College Park, Maryland 20742, United States
- Institute for Systems Research, University of Maryland, College Park, Maryland 20742, United States
- Robert E. Fischell Institute for Biomedical Devices, University of Maryland, College Park, Maryland 20742, United States
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Shukla S, Khanna S, Sahoo S, Joshi N, Narayan R. Nanomaterial-Coated Carbon-Fiber-Based Multicontact Array Sensors for In Vitro Monitoring of Serotonin Levels. ACS APPLIED BIO MATERIALS 2024; 7:472-484. [PMID: 38166214 DOI: 10.1021/acsabm.3c01089] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/04/2024]
Abstract
In this study, we demonstrated the fabrication of multicontact hierarchical probes for the in vitro detection of serotonin levels. The basic three-dimensional (3D) bendable prototypes with 3 (C1), 6 (C2), or 9 (C3) contact surfaces were printed from polymeric resin via the digital light processing (DLP) technique. We chose ultrasonicated carbon fiber strands to transform these designs into multicontact carbon fiber electrodes (MCCFEs). The exposed carbon fiber (CF) surfaces were modified with aminopropyl alkoxysilane (APTMS), followed by the subsequent loading of palladium nanoclusters (PdNPs) to build active recording sites. CF functionalization with PdNPs was achieved by the wet chemical reduction of Pd(II) to Pd(0). The MCCFE configurations demonstrated an enhancement in the electroactive surface area and an improved voltammetric response toward 5-HT oxidation by increasing the points of the contacts (i.e., from C1 to C3). These MCCFEs are comparable to 3D-protruding electrodes as they can enable multipoint analyte detection. Along with the electrode patterns, morphological irregularities associated with both Pd-doped and undoped CFs supported the creation of proximal diffusion layers for facile mass transfer. Low detection limits of 0.8-10 nM over a wide concentration range, from 0.005 nM to 1 mM, were demonstrated. The MCCFE sensors had a relatively low standard deviation value of ∼2%. This type of sensitive and cost-effective electrochemical sensor may prove useful for collecting electrical impulses and long-term monitoring of 5-HT in vivo in addition to in vitro testing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shubhangi Shukla
- Joint Department of Biomedical Engineering, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina 27695-7907, United States
| | - Sumeer Khanna
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina 27695-7907, United States
| | - Siba Sahoo
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina 27695-7907, United States
| | - Naveen Joshi
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina 27695-7907, United States
| | - Roger Narayan
- Joint Department of Biomedical Engineering, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina 27695-7907, United States
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Bill D, Jasper M, Weltin A, Urban GA, Rupitsch SJ, Kieninger J. Electrochemical Methods in the Cloud: FreiStat, an IoT-Enabled Embedded Potentiostat. Anal Chem 2023; 95:13003-13009. [PMID: 37582246 PMCID: PMC11321338 DOI: 10.1021/acs.analchem.3c02114] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/15/2023] [Accepted: 08/04/2023] [Indexed: 08/17/2023]
Abstract
Embedded potentiostats enable electrochemical measurements in the Internet-of-Things (IoT) or other decentralized applications, such as remote environmental monitoring, electrochemical energy systems, and biomedical point-of-care applications. We report on Freiburg's Potentiostat (FreiStat) based on the AD5941 potentiostat circuit from Analog Devices, together with custom firmware, as the key to precise and advanced electrochemical methods. We demonstrated its analytical performance by various cyclic voltammetry measurements, advanced techniques such as differential pulse voltammetry, and a lactate biosensor measurement with currents in the nA range and a resolution of 54 pA. The FreiStat yielded analytical results comparable to benchtop devices and outperformed current commercial embedded potentiostats at significantly lower cost, smaller size, and lower power consumption. Decentralized corrosion analysis by a Tafel plot using the IBM Cloud showed its applicability in a typical IoT scenario. The developed open-source software framework facilitates the integration of electrochemical instrumentation into applications utilizing machine learning and other artificial intelligence. Together with the affordable and highly capable embedded potentiostat, our approach can leverage analytical chemistry toward increasingly important, more widespread and decentralized applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- David Bill
- Laboratory
for Sensors, IMTEK − Department of Microsystems Engineering, University of Freiburg, 79110 Freiburg, Germany
| | - Mark Jasper
- Laboratory
for Sensors, IMTEK − Department of Microsystems Engineering, University of Freiburg, 79110 Freiburg, Germany
| | - Andreas Weltin
- Laboratory
for Sensors, IMTEK − Department of Microsystems Engineering, University of Freiburg, 79110 Freiburg, Germany
- BrainLinks−BrainTools
Center, University of Freiburg, 79110 Freiburg, Germany
- Laboratory
for Electrical Instrumentation and Embedded Systems, IMTEK −
Department of Microsystems Engineering, University of Freiburg, 79110 Freiburg, Germany
| | - Gerald A. Urban
- Laboratory
for Sensors, IMTEK − Department of Microsystems Engineering, University of Freiburg, 79110 Freiburg, Germany
- BrainLinks−BrainTools
Center, University of Freiburg, 79110 Freiburg, Germany
| | - Stefan J. Rupitsch
- BrainLinks−BrainTools
Center, University of Freiburg, 79110 Freiburg, Germany
- Laboratory
for Electrical Instrumentation and Embedded Systems, IMTEK −
Department of Microsystems Engineering, University of Freiburg, 79110 Freiburg, Germany
| | - Jochen Kieninger
- Laboratory
for Sensors, IMTEK − Department of Microsystems Engineering, University of Freiburg, 79110 Freiburg, Germany
- BrainLinks−BrainTools
Center, University of Freiburg, 79110 Freiburg, Germany
- Laboratory
for Electrical Instrumentation and Embedded Systems, IMTEK −
Department of Microsystems Engineering, University of Freiburg, 79110 Freiburg, Germany
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Hadad M, Hadad N, Zestos AG. Carbon Electrode Sensor for the Measurement of Cortisol with Fast-Scan Cyclic Voltammetry. BIOSENSORS 2023; 13:626. [PMID: 37366991 DOI: 10.3390/bios13060626] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/22/2023] [Revised: 05/29/2023] [Accepted: 06/03/2023] [Indexed: 06/28/2023]
Abstract
Cortisol is a vital steroid hormone that has been known as the "stress hormone", which is elevated during times of high stress and anxiety and has a significant impact on neurochemistry and brain health. The improved detection of cortisol is critically important as it will help further our understanding of stress during several physiological states. Several methods exist to detect cortisol; however, they suffer from low biocompatibility and spatiotemporal resolution, and they are relatively slow. In this study, we developed an assay to measure cortisol with carbon fiber microelectrodes (CFMEs) and fast-scan cyclic voltammetry (FSCV). FSCV is typically utilized to measure small molecule neurotransmitters by producing a readout cyclic voltammogram (CV) for the specific detection of biomolecules on a fast, subsecond timescale with biocompatible CFMEs. It has seen enhanced utility in measuring peptides and other larger compounds. We developed a waveform that scanned from -0.5 to -1.2 V at 400 V/s to electro-reduce cortisol at the surface of CFMEs. The sensitivity of cortisol was found to be 0.87 ± 0.055 nA/μM (n = 5) and was found to be adsorption controlled on the surface of CFMEs and stable over several hours. Cortisol was co-detected with several other biomolecules such as dopamine, and the waveform was fouling resistant to repeated injections of cortisol on the surface of the CFMEs. Furthermore, we also measured exogenously applied cortisol into simulated urine to demonstrate biocompatibility and potential use in vivo. The specific and biocompatible detection of cortisol with high spatiotemporal resolution will help further elucidate its biological significance and further understand its physiological importance and impact on brain health.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michelle Hadad
- Department of Chemistry, American University, Washington, DC 20016, USA
| | - Nadine Hadad
- Department of Chemistry, American University, Washington, DC 20016, USA
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