The overlooked NIR luminescence of Cr(ppy)3

Ferromagnetically Coupled Chromium(III) Dimer Shows Luminescence and Sensitizes Photon Upconversion

There has been much progress on mononuclear chromium(III) complexes featuring luminescence and photoredox activity, but dinuclear chromium(III) complexes have remained underexplored in these contexts until now. We identified a tridentate chelate ligand able to accommodate both meridional and facial coordination of chromium(III), to either access a mono- or a dinuclear chromium(III) complex depending on reaction conditions. This chelate ligand causes tetragonally distorted primary coordination spheres around chromium(III) in both complexes, entailing comparatively short excited-state lifetimes in the range of 400 to 800 ns in solution at room temperature and making photoluminescence essentially oxygen insensitive. The two chromium(III) ions in the dimer experience ferromagnetic exchange interactions that result in a high spin (S=3) ground state with a coupling constant of +9.3 cm-1. Photoinduced energy transfer from the luminescent ferromagnetically coupled dimer to an anthracene derivative results in sensitized triplet-triplet annihilation upconversion. Based on these proof-of-principle studies, dinuclear chromium(III) complexes seem attractive for the development of fundamentally new types of photophysics and photochemistry enabled by magnetic exchange interactions.

A Near-Infrared Luminescent Cr(III) N-Heterocyclic Carbene Complex

Photoluminescent coordination complexes of Cr(III) are of interest as near-infrared spin-flip emitters. Here, we explore the preparation, electrochemistry, and photophysical properties of the first two examples of homoleptic N-heterocyclic carbene complexes of Cr(III), featuring 2,6-bis(imidazolyl)pyridine (ImPyIm) and 2-imidazolylpyridine (ImPy) ligands. The complex [Cr(ImPy)3]3+ displays luminescence at 803 nm on the microsecond time scale (13.7 μs) from a spin-flip doublet excited state, which transient absorption spectroscopy reveals to be populated within several picoseconds following photoexcitation. Conversely, [Cr(ImPyIm)2]3+ is nonemissive and has a ca. 500 ps excited-state lifetime.

Additional Insights into the Design of Cr(III) Phosphorescent Emitters Using 6-Membered Chelate Ring Bis(imidazolyl) Didentate Ligands

The interest in Cr(III) complexes has been renewed over the past decades for building practical guidelines in the design of efficient earth-abundant phosphorescent near-infrared emitters. In that context, we report the first family of homoleptic tri(didentate) Cr(III) complexes [CrL3]3+ based on polyaromatic ligands inducing 6-membered chelate rings, namely, the bis(1-methylimidazol-2-yl)ketone (L = bik), bis(1-methylimidazol-2-yl)methane (L = bim), and bis(1-methylimidazol-2-yl)ethane (L = bie) ligands. The programmed close-to-perfect octahedral microsymmetry of {CrIIIN6} chromophores found in [Cr(bik)3](OTf)3 (1), [Cr(bim)3](OTf)3 (2), and [Cr(bie)3](BF4)3 (3) ensures a ligand-field strength large enough to induce intense and long-lived Cr-based phosphorescence. Impressive excited-state lifetimes (5.0-8.2 ms) were obtained at low temperatures for the [Cr(L)3]3+ series. Additionally, the photoluminescent quantum yield climbs to 0.8% for compound 1 in deaerated solutions. Moreover, the photophysical features of the three homoleptic complexes are barely influenced by the presence of dioxygen presumably because of the poor overlap between the Cr-based phosphorescence spectra (ca. 14100 cm-1) and the 1Σg+ ← 3Σg- transition in the absorption spectrum of dioxygen (13100 cm-1). The multiredox electrochemical pattern of 1 is evidenced by cyclic voltammetry as well as its strong photooxidant behavior. The pH sensitivity of 2 and 3 luminescence is discussed, along with the reactivity of their β-diketiminate derivatives.

Ligand field design enables quantum manipulation of spins in Ni2+ complexes

Creating the next generation of quantum systems requires control and tunability, which are key features of molecules. To design these systems, one must consider the ground-state and excited-state manifolds. One class of systems with promise for quantum sensing applications, which require water solubility, are d8 Ni2+ ions in octahedral symmetry. Yet, most Ni2+ complexes feature large zero-field splitting, precluding manipulation by commercial microwave sources due to the relatively large spin-orbit coupling constant of Ni2+ (630 cm-1). Since low lying excited states also influence axial zero-field splitting, D, a combination of strong field ligands and rigidly held octahedral symmetry can ameliorate these challenges. Towards these ends, we performed a theoretical and computational analysis of the electronic and magnetic structure of a molecular qubit, focusing on the impact of ligand field strength on D. Based on those results, we synthesized 1, [Ni(ttcn)2](BF4)2 (ttcn = 1,4,7-trithiacyclononane), which we computationally predict will have a small D (Dcalc = +1.15 cm-1). High-field high-frequency electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) data yield spin Hamiltonian parameters: gx = 2.1018(15), gx = 2.1079(15), gx = 2.0964(14), D = +0.555(8) cm-1 and E = +0.072(5) cm-1, which confirm the expected weak zero-field splitting. Dilution of 1 in the diamagnetic Zn analogue, [Ni0.01Zn0.99(ttcn)2](BF4)2 (1') led to a slight increase in D to ∼0.9 cm-1. The design criteria in minimizing D in 1via combined computational and experimental methods demonstrates a path forward for EPR and optical addressability of a general class of S = 1 spins.

Electronic Structure and Excited-State Dynamics of the NIR-II Emissive Molybdenum(III) Analogue to the Molecular Ruby

Photoactive chromium(III) complexes saw a conceptual breakthrough with the discovery of the prototypical molecular ruby mer-[Cr(ddpd)2]3+ (ddpd = N,N'-dimethyl-N,N'-dipyridin-2-ylpyridine-2,6-diamine), which shows intense long-lived near-infrared (NIR) phosphorescence from metal-centered spin-flip states. In contrast to the numerous studies on chromium(III) photophysics, only 10 luminescent molybdenum(III) complexes have been reported so far. Here, we present the synthesis and characterization of mer-MoX3(ddpd) (1, X = Cl; 2, X = Br) and cisfac-[Mo(ddpd)2]3+ (cisfac-[3]3+), an isomeric heavy homologue of the prototypical molecular ruby. For cisfac-[3]3+, we found strong zero-field splitting using magnetic susceptibility measurements and electron paramagnetic resonance spectroscopy. Electronic spectra covering the spin-forbidden transitions show that the spin-flip states in mer-1, mer-2, and cisfac-[3]3+ are much lower in energy than those in comparable chromium(III) compounds. While all three complexes show weak spin-flip phosphorescence in NIR-II, the emission of cisfac-[3]3+ peaking at 1550 nm is particularly low in energy. Femtosecond transient absorption spectroscopy reveals a short excited-state lifetime of 1.4 ns, 6 orders of magnitude shorter than that of mer-[Cr(ddpd)2]3+. Using density functional theory and ab initio multireference calculations, we break down the reasons for this disparity and derive principles for the design of future stable photoactive molybdenum(III) complexes.

Photoactive Metal-to-Ligand Charge Transfer Excited States in 3d6 Complexes with Cr0, MnI, FeII, and CoIII

Many coordination complexes and organometallic compounds with the 4d⁶ and 5d⁶ valence electron configurations have outstanding photophysical and photochemical properties, which stem from metal-to-ligand charge transfer (MLCT) excited states. This substance class makes extensive use of the most precious and least abundant metal elements, and consequently there has been a long-standing interest in first-row transition metal compounds with photoactive MLCT states. Semiprecious copper(I) with its completely filled 3d subshell is a relatively straightforward and well explored case, but in 3d⁶ complexes the partially filled d-orbitals lead to energetically low-lying metal-centered (MC) states that can cause undesirably fast MLCT excited state deactivation. Herein, we discuss recent advances made with isoelectronic Cr⁰, Mn^I, Fe^II, and Co^III compounds, for which long-lived MLCT states have become accessible over the past five years. Furthermore, we discuss possible future developments in the search for new first-row transition metal complexes with partially filled 3d subshells and photoactive MLCT states for next-generation applications in photophysics and photochemistry.

Bright, Modular, and Switchable Near-Infrared II Emission from Compact Tetrathiafulvalene-Based Diradicaloid Complexes

Near-infrared (NIR)-emitting molecules are promising candidates for biological sensing and imaging applications; however, many NIR dyes are large conjugated systems which frequently have issues with stability, solubility, and tunability. Here, we report a novel class of compact and tunable fluorescent diradicaloid complexes which are air-, water-, light-, and temperature-stable. These properties arise from a compressed π manifold which promotes an intense ligand-centered π-π transition in the NIR II (1000-1700 nm) region and which subsequently emits at ∼1200 nm. This emission is among the brightest known for monomolecular lumiphores with deep NIR II (>1100 nm) emission, nearly an order of magnitude brighter than the commercially available NIR II dye IR 26. Furthermore, this fluorescence is electrochemically sensitive, with efficient switching upon addition of redox agents. The brightness, stability, and modularity of this system distinguish it as a promising candidate for the development of new technologies built around NIR emission.

Complex-as-Ligand Strategy as a Tool for the Design of a Binuclear Nonsymmetrical Chromium(III) Assembly: Near-Infrared Double Emission and Intramolecular Energy Transfer

The chromium(III) polypyridyl complexes are appealing for their long-lived near-infrared (NIR) emission reaching the millisecond range and for the strong circularly polarized luminescence of their isolated enantiomers. However, harnessing those properties in functional polynuclear Cr^III devices remains mainly inaccessible because of the lack of synthetic methods for their design and functionalization. Even the preparation and investigation of most basic nonsymmetrical Cr^III dyads exhibiting directional intramolecular intermetallic energy transfer remain unexplored. Taking advantage of the inertness of heteroleptic chromium(III) polypyridyl building blocks, we herein adapt the "complex-as-ligand" strategy, largely used with precious 4d and 5d metals, for the preparation of a binuclear nonsymmetrical Cr^III complex (3d metal). The resulting [(phen)₂Cr(L)Cr(tpy)]⁶⁺ dyad shows dual long-lived NIR emission and a directional intermetallic energy transfer that is controlled by the specific arrangements of the different coordination spheres. This strategy opens a route for building predetermined polynuclear assemblies with this earth-abundant metal.

Spin-flip luminescence

In molecular photochemistry, charge-transfer emission is well understood and widely exploited. In contrast, luminescent metal-centered transitions only came into focus in recent years. This gave rise to strongly phosphorescent Cr^III complexes with a d³ electronic configuration featuring luminescent metal-centered excited states which are characterized by the flip of a single spin. These so-called spin-flip emitters possess unique properties and require different design strategies than traditional charge-transfer phosphors. In this review, we give a brief introduction to ligand field theory as a framework to understand this phenomenon and outline prerequisites for efficient spin-flip emission including ligand field strength, symmetry, intersystem crossing and common deactivation pathways using Cr^III complexes as instructive examples. The recent progress and associated challenges of tuning the energies of emissive excited states and of emerging applications of the unique photophysical properties of spin-flip emitters are discussed. Finally, we summarize the current state-of-the-art and challenges of spin-flip emitters beyond Cr^III with d², d³, d⁴ and d⁸ electronic configuration, where we mainly cover pseudooctahedral molecular complexes of V, Mo, W, Mn, Re and Ni, and highlight possible future research opportunities.

Molecular Ruby: Exploring the Excited State Landscape

The discovery of the highly NIR-luminescent Molecular Ruby [Cr(ddpd)2]3+ 13+ (ddpd = N,N’-dimethyl-N,N’-dipyridine-2-ylpyridine-2,6-diamine) has been a milestone in the development of earth-abundant luminophors and has led to important new impulses...