Ligand engineering of Au44 nanoclusters for NIR-II luminescent and photoacoustic imaging-guided cancer photothermal therapy

Tongue squamous cell carcinoma-targeting Au-HN-1 nanosystem for CT imaging and photothermal therapy

Tongue squamous cell carcinoma (TSCC) is a prevalent malignancy that afflicts the head and neck area and presents a high incidence of metastasis and invasion. Accurate diagnosis and effective treatment are essential for enhancing the quality of life and the survival rates of TSCC patients. The current treatment modalities for TSCC frequently suffer from a lack of specificity and efficacy. Nanoparticles with diagnostic and photothermal therapeutic properties may offer a new approach for the targeted therapy of TSCC. However, inadequate accumulation of photosensitizers at the tumor site diminishes the efficacy of photothermal therapy (PTT). This study modified gold nanodots (AuNDs) with the TSCC-targeting peptide HN-1 to improve the selectivity and therapeutic effects of PTT. The Au-HN-1 nanosystem effectively targeted the TSCC cells and was rapidly delivered to the tumor tissues compared to the AuNDs. The enhanced accumulation of photosensitizing agents at tumor sites achieved significant PTT effects in a mouse model of TSCC. Moreover, owing to its stable long-term fluorescence and high X-ray attenuation coefficient, the Au-HN-1 nanosystem can be used for fluorescence and computed tomography imaging of TSCC, rendering it useful for early tumor detection and accurate delineation of surgical margins. In conclusion, Au-HN-1 represents a promising nanomedicine for imaging-based diagnosis and targeted PTT of TSCC.

Engineering a Near-Infrared Spiro-Based Aggregation-Induced Emission Luminogen for DNAzyme-Sensitized Photothermal Therapy with High Efficiency and Accuracy

Aggregation-induced emission luminogen (AIEgens)-based photothermal therapy (PTT) has grown into a sparkling frontier for tumor ablation. However, challenges remain due to the uncoordinated photoluminescence (PL) and photothermal properties of classical AIEgens, along with hyperthermia-induced antiapoptotic responses in tumor cells, hindering satisfactory therapeutic outcomes. Herein, a near-infrared (NIR) spiro-AIEgen TTQ-SA was designed for boosted PTT by auxiliary DNAzyme-regulated tumor cell sensitization. TTQ-SA with a unique molecular structure and packing mode was initially fabricated, endowing it with a strong AIE effect, favorable PL quantum yield, and good photothermal performance. DNAzyme, as a gene silencing tool, could alleviate antiapoptosis response during PTT. By integrating TTQ-SA and DNAzyme into folate-modified poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA) polymer, the as-fabricated nanosystem could promote cell apoptosis and sensitize tumor cells to PTT, thereby maximizing the therapeutic outcomes. With the combination of spiro-AIEgen-based PTT and DNAzyme-based gene silencing, the as-designed nanosystem showed promising NIR and photothermal imaging abilities for tumor targeting and demonstrated significant cell apoptotic, antitumor, and antimetastasis effects against orthotopic breast cancer. Furthermore, a synergistic antitumor effect was realized in spontaneous MMTV-PyMT transgenic mice. These findings offer new insights into AIEgen-based photothermal theranostics and DNAzyme-regulated tumor cell sensitization, paving the way for synergistic gene silencing-PTT nanoplatforms in clinical research.

Ultrasmall metal nanoclusters as efficient luminescent probes for bioimaging

Ultrasmall metal nanoclusters (NCs, <2 nm) have emerged as a novel class of luminescent probes due to their atomically precise size and tailored physicochemical properties. The rapid advancements in the design and utilization of metal NC-based luminescent probes are facilitated by the atomic-level manipulation of metal NCs. This review article explores (i) the engineering of metal NCs' functions for bioimaging applications, and (ii) the diverse uses of metal NCs in bioimaging. We begin by presenting an overview of the engineering functions of metal NCs as luminescent probes for bioimaging applications, highlighting key strategies for enhancing NCs' luminescence, biocompatibility and targeting capabilities towards biological specimens. Our discussion then centers on the bioimaging applications of metal NCs in subcellular organelles, individual cells, tissues, and entire organs. Finally, we offer a perspective on the challenges and potential developments in the future use of metal NCs for bioimaging applications.

Applications of nanotheranostics in the second near-infrared window in bioimaging and cancer treatment

Achieving accurate and efficient tumor imaging is crucial in the field of tumor treatment, as it facilitates early detection and precise localization of tumor tissues, thereby informing therapeutic strategies and surgical interventions. The optical imaging technology within the second near-infrared (NIR-II) window has garnered significant interest for its remarkable benefits, such as enhanced tissue penetration depth, superior signal-to-background ratio (SBR), minimal tissue autofluorescence, reduced photon attenuation, and lower tissue scattering. This review explained the design and optimization strategies of nano-agents responsive to the NIR-II window, such as single-walled carbon nanotubes, quantum dots, lanthanum-based nanomaterials, and noble metal nanomaterials. These nano-agents enable non-invasive, deep-tissue imaging with high spatial resolution in the NIR-II window, and their superior optical properties significantly improve the accuracy, efficiency, and versatility of imaging-guided tumor treatments. And we discussed the characteristics and advantages of fluorescence imaging (FL)/photoacoustic imaging (PA) in NIR-II window, providing a comprehensive overview of the latest research progress of different nano-agents in FL/PA imaging-guided tumor therapy. Furthermore, we exhaustively reviewed the latest applications of multifunctional nano-phototherapy technologies carried out by NIR-II light including photothermal therapy (PTT), photodynamic therapy (PDT), and combined modalities like photothermal-chemodynamic therapy (PTT-CDT), photothermal-chemotherapy (PTT-CT), and photothermal- immunotherapy (PTT-IO). These imaging-guided integrated tumor therapy approaches within the NIR-II window have gradually matured over the past decade and are expected to become a safe and effective non-invasive tumor treatment. Finally, we outlined the prospects and challenges of development and innovation of the NIR-II integrated diagnosis and therapy nanoplatform. This review aims to provide insightful perspectives for future advancements in NIR-II optical tumor diagnosis and integrated treatment platforms.

Recent progress in gold-derived nanomaterials for tumor theranostics

It is widely acknowledged that gold-based materials are of significant interest in the field of biomedicine. Consequently, considerable efforts have been devoted to identifying gold nanoparticles that exhibit effective performance in tumor diagnosis and treatment. However, the underlying reasons for the enhanced efficacy of these gold-based nanomaterials in cancer therapy and diagnosis remain unclear, primarily due to the lack of an in-depth understanding of the mechanisms involved. Therefore, it is essential to summarize the progress in the field to facilitate the rational design of more efficient nanodevices. In this review, we present recent achievements drawn from the latest research to demonstrate the broad applications of gold-based materials. We begin by illustrating the mechanisms of gold-derived nanoparticles during therapeutic and diagnostic processes, including photothermal therapy, photodynamic therapy, sonodynamic therapy, photoacoustic tomography, fluorescence imaging, and X-ray computed tomography. We then summarize the advancements of gold-based nanomaterials in cancer diagnosis and treatment while also analyzing the factors contributing to their enhanced performance. Finally, we highlight key descriptors for evaluating the efficacy and strategies for designing high-performance nanomaterials. This review aims to pave the way for addressing future challenges and outlines directions for the advancement of gold-based biomedicine.

Engineered Enucleated Mesenchymal Stem Cells Regulating Immune Microenvironment and Promoting Wound Healing

Persistent excessive inflammation caused by neutrophil and macrophage dysfunction in the wound bed leads to refractory response during wound healing. However, previous studies using cytokines or drugs often suffer from short half-lives and limited targeting, resulting in unsatisfactory therapeutic effects. Herein, the enucleated mesenchymal stem cell is engineered by aptamer bioorthogonal chemistry to modify the cell membrane and mRNA loading in the cell cytoplasm as a novel delivery vector (Cargocyte) with accurate targeting and sustained cytokine secretion. Cargocytes can successfully reduce NETosis by targeting the nuclear chromatin protein DEK protein with aptamers and sustaining interleukin (IL)-4 expression to overcome the challenges associated with the high cost and short half-life of IL-4 protein and significantly prevent the transition of macrophages into the M1 phenotype. Therapeutic effects have been demonstrated in murine and porcine wound models and have powerful potential to improve wound immune microenvironments effectively. Overall, the use of engineered enucleated mesenchymal stem cells as a delivery system may be a promising approach for wound healing.

Engineering in situ growth of Au nanoclusters on hydrophilic paper fibres for fluorescence calligraphy-based chemical logic gates and information encryption

Gold nanoclusters (AuNCs) are a type of rising-star fluorescence nanomaterials, but their properties and applications are hindered by the multi-step synthesis and purification routes, as well as the lack of desired supporting substrates. To enhance optical performance and working efficiency, the synthesis and applications of AuNCs are suggested to be merged with emerging substrates. Herein, glutathione-modified hydrophilic rice papers are incubated in chloroauric acid aqueous solutions, and the oxidation-reduction reaction between glutathione and Au ions enables the in situ formation of fluorescent AuNCs on the solid fibres of rice papers. The in situ growth of fluorescent AuNCs on rice papers resulted in eye-catching fluorescence tracks, similar to traditional Chinese conventional calligraphy; thus, this fluoresence calligraphy is defined in this work. The entire process, including synthesis and signal responses, is extremely simple, rapid, and repeatable. Moreover, the diversity of additive chemical reagents in the studied rice papers resulted in responsive fluorescence calligraphy, and the as-synthesized AuNC materials exhibited high reliability and optical stability. Significantly, with the integration of synchronous formation and application of Au nanoclusters on hydrophilic paper substrates, high-performance logical gates and information encryption systems were constructed, remarkably facilitating the progress of molecular sensing and important information transmission.

Discovering of Atomically Precise Metal Nanoclusters by High-Throughput Syntheses Platform

Understanding the complete structure of noble metal nanoclusters is both academically and practically significant. However, progress has been hindered by the low synthetic efficiency of many nanocluster syntheses. In this study, we present the first high-throughput syntheses of homo-gold, homo-copper, and gold-copper alloy nanoclusters in dichloromethane at room temperature. Through high-throughput screening, we successfully obtained three nanoclusters in a single reaction: Au18(SC6H11)14, [Au41Cu66(SC6H11)44](SbF6)3, and an unidentified copper cluster (referred to as Au18, Au41Cu66 , and Cu-NC). The optimized synthesis route was achieved with the assistance of machine learning for experimental data analysis, which also guided the synthesis of other metal nanoclusters such as Au40Cu34(4-S-PhF)40 (Au40Cu34), [Au6Cu6(SPh)12]n ([Au6Cu6]n), and Au18Cu32(3,5-C8H9S)36 (Au18Cu32)). This research demonstrates that high-throughput screening can be a valuable tool in accelerating the development of nanocluster syntheses.

Therapeutic and Contrast Agents for Photoacoustic Imaging-Guided Photothermal Therapy: A Narrative Review

Photoacoustic imaging is a hybrid modality that combines high-contrast and spectroscopy-based optical imaging specificity with the high spatial resolution of ultrasonography. This review highlights the development and progress of photoacoustic imaging technology over the past decade. This imaging technology has evolved to be more user-friendly, cost-effective, and portable, demonstrating its potential for diverse clinical applications. A potential clinical application lies in the use of photoacoustic imaging as a guiding tool for photothermal therapy. This review was conducted by initially filtering through three databases, namely, Google Scholar, PubMed, and Scopus, resulting in 460 articles published between 2019 and May 2023. Of these, 54 articles were deemed suitable for review after identification. The selected articles were research papers focusing on the development of therapeutic agents that enhance contrast in photoacoustic imaging. All reviewed articles tested these agents both in vitro and in vivo. This review focuses on wavelength absorption and radiation sources for photothermal therapy. The developed agents predominantly used NIR-I wavelengths, whereas the NIR-II region has been less explored, indicating significant potential for future research. This review provides comprehensive insights into the advancement of compounds serving as therapeutic agents and contrast agents in photoacoustic imaging-guided photothermal therapy.

Silvery fullerene in Ag102 nanosaucer

Despite the discovery of a series of fullerenes and a handful of noncarbon clusters with the typical topology of I h-C60, the smallest fullerene with a large degree of curvature, C20, and its other-element counterparts are difficult to isolate experimentally. In coinage metal nanoclusters (NCs), the first all-gold fullerene, Au32, was discovered after a long-lasting pursuit, but the isolation of similar silvery fullerene structures is still challenging. Herein, we report a flying saucer-shaped 102-nuclei silver NC (Ag102) with a silvery fullerene kernel of Ag32, which is embraced by a robust cyclic anionic passivation layer of (KPO4)10. This Ag32 kernel can be viewed as a non-centered icosahedron Ag12 encaged into a dodecahedron Ag20, forming the silvery fullerene of Ag12@Ag20. The anionic layer (KPO4)10 is located at the interlayer between the Ag32 kernel and Ag70 shell, passivating the Ag32 silvery fullerene and templating the Ag70 shell. The t BuPhS- and CF3COO- ligands on the silver shell show a regioselective arrangement with the 60 t BuPhS- ligands as expanders covering the upper and lower of the flying saucer and 10 CF3COO- as terminators neatly encircling the edges of the structure. In addition, Ag102 shows excellent photothermal conversion efficiency (η) from the visible to near-infrared region (η = 67.1% ± 0.9% at 450 nm, 60.9% ± 0.9% at 660 nm and 50.2% ± 0.5% at 808 nm), rendering it a promising material for photothermal converters and potential application in remote laser ignition. This work not only captures silver kernels with the topology of the smallest fullerene C20, but also provides a pathway for incorporating alkali metal (M) into coinage metal NCs via M-oxoanions.

Enzyme-mimic catalytic activities and biomedical applications of noble metal nanoclusters

Noble metal (e.g., Au and Ag) nanoclusters (NCs), which exhibit structural complexity and hierarchy comparable to those of natural proteins, have been increasingly pursued in artificial enzyme research. The protein-like structure of metal NCs not only ensures enzyme-mimic catalytic activity, including peroxidase-, catalase-, and superoxide dismutase-mimic activities, but also affords an unprecedented opportunity to correlate the catalytic performance with the cluster structure at the molecular or atomic levels. In this review, we aim to summarize the recent progress in programming and demystify the enzyme-mimic catalytic activity of metal NCs, presenting the state-of-the-art understandings of the structure-property relationship of metal NC-based artificial enzymes. By leveraging on a concise anatomy of the hierarchical structure of noble metal NCs, we manage to unravel the structural origin of the catalytic performance of metal NCs. Noteworthily, it has been proven that the surface ligands and metal-ligand interface of metal NCs are instrumental in influencing enzyme-mimic catalytic activities. In addition to the structure-property correlation, we also discuss the synthetic methodologies feasible to tailoring the cluster structure at the atomic level. Prior to the closure of this review with our perspectives in noble metal NC-based artificial enzymes, we also exemplify the biomedical applications based on the enzyme-mimic catalysis of metal NCs with the theranostics of kidney injury, brain inflammation, and tumors. The fundamental and methodological advancements delineated in this review would be conducive to further development of metal NCs as an alternative family of artificial enzymes.

Revolutionizing lymph node metastasis imaging: the role of drug delivery systems and future perspectives

The deployment of imaging examinations has evolved into a robust approach for the diagnosis of lymph node metastasis (LNM). The advancement of technology, coupled with the introduction of innovative imaging drugs, has led to the incorporation of an increasingly diverse array of imaging techniques into clinical practice. Nonetheless, conventional methods of administering imaging agents persist in presenting certain drawbacks and side effects. The employment of controlled drug delivery systems (DDSs) as a conduit for transporting imaging agents offers a promising solution to ameliorate these limitations intrinsic to metastatic lymph node (LN) imaging, thereby augmenting diagnostic precision. Within the scope of this review, we elucidate the historical context of LN imaging and encapsulate the frequently employed DDSs in conjunction with a variety of imaging techniques, specifically for metastatic LN imaging. Moreover, we engage in a discourse on the conceptualization and practical application of fusing diagnosis and treatment by employing DDSs. Finally, we venture into prospective applications of DDSs in the realm of LNM imaging and share our perspective on the potential trajectory of DDS development.

Intratumor injected gold molecular clusters for NIR-II imaging and cancer therapy

Surgical resections of solid tumors guided by visual inspection of tumor margins have been performed for over a century to treat cancer. Near-infrared (NIR) fluorescence labeling/imaging of tumor in the NIR-I (800 to 900 nm) range with systemically administrated fluorophore/tumor-targeting antibody conjugates have been introduced to improve tumor margin delineation, tumor removal accuracy, and patient survival. Here, we show Au25 molecular clusters functionalized with phosphorylcholine ligands (AuPC, ~2 nm in size) as a preclinical intratumorally injectable agent for NIR-II/SWIR (1,000 to 3,000 nm) fluorescence imaging-guided tumor resection. The AuPC clusters were found to be uniformly distributed in the 4T1 murine breast cancer tumor upon intratumor (i.t.) injection. The phosphocholine coating afforded highly stealth clusters, allowing a high percentage of AuPC to fill the tumor interstitial fluid space homogeneously. Intra-operative surgical navigation guided by imaging of the NIR-II fluorescence of AuPC allowed for complete and non-excessive tumor resection. The AuPC in tumors were also employed as a photothermal therapy (PTT) agent to uniformly heat up and eradicate tumors. Further, we performed in vivo NIR-IIb (1,500 to 1,700 nm) molecular imaging of the treated tumor using a quantum dot-Annexin V (QD-P3-Anx V) conjugate, revealing cancer cell apoptosis following PTT. The therapeutic functionalities of AuPC clusters combined with rapid renal excretion, high biocompatibility, and safety make them promising for clinical translation.

Multiscale Bioresponses of Metal Nanoclusters

Metal nanoclusters (NCs) are well-recognized novel nano-agents that hold great promise for applications in nanomedicine because of their ultrafine size, low toxicity, and high renal clearance. As foreign substances, however, an in-depth understanding of the bioresponses to metal NCs is necessary but is still far from being realized. Herein, this review is deployed to summarize the biofates of metal NCs at various biological levels, emphasizing their multiscale bioresponses at the molecular, cellular, and organismal levels. In the parts-to-whole schema, the interactions between biomolecules and metal NCs are discussed, presenting typical protein-dictated nano-bio interfaces, hierarchical structures, and in vivo trajectories. Then, the accumulation, internalization, and metabolic evolution of metal NCs in the cellular environment and as-imparted theranostic functionalization are demonstrated. The organismal metabolism and transportation processes of the metal NCs are subsequently distilled. Finally, this review ends with the conclusions and perspectives on the outstanding issues of metal NC-mediated bioresponses in the near future. This review is expected to provide inspiration for tailoring the customization of metal NC-based nano-agents to meet practical requirements in different sectors of nanomedicine.

Biological Interaction and Imaging of Ultrasmall Gold Nanoparticles

The ultrasmall gold nanoparticles (AuNPs), serving as a bridge between small molecules and traditional inorganic nanoparticles, create significant opportunities to address many challenges in the health field. This review discusses the recent advances in the biological interactions and imaging of ultrasmall AuNPs. The challenges and the future development directions of the ultrasmall AuNPs are presented.

Controlling NIR-II emitting gold organic/inorganic nanohybrids with tunable morphology and surface PEG density for dynamic visualization of vascular dysfunction

Luminescent Au nanoparticles (AuNPs) and their organic/inorganic nanohybrids are of interest due to their favorable properties and promising biomedical applications. However, most existing AuNP-based hybrid nanostructures cannot satisfy high efficiency in synthesis, deep tissue penetration, and long blood circulation simultaneously, thus cannot be employed in dynamic monitoring of biomedical applications. In this paper, using Pluronic F127 as a template, we report a robust approach for one-pot synthesis of AuNP-based organic/inorganic nanohybrids (AuNHs) with bright luminescence in the second near-infrared (NIR-II) window, tunable shape, and controllable surface polyethylene glycol (PEG) density. The nanohybrids could be controlled from a necklace-like shape with a dense brush PEG configuration to a spherical structure with a brush PEG coating, which greatly impacts the in vivo biological behavior. Compared to spherical AuNHs, the necklace-shaped AuNHs present a higher quantum yield and longer blood circulation, which are superior to most of the individual AuNPs. With these outstanding features, the necklace-shaped AuNHs could achieve real-time, dynamic visualization of vascular dysfunction, capable of directing the precise administration of thrombolytics (a medicine for the breakdown of blood clots). These findings could provide a powerful guide for designing novel NIR-II nanoprobes toward in vivo dynamic information visualization.

Engineering Au44 Nanoclusters for NIR-II Luminescence Imaging-Guided Photoactivatable Cancer Immunotherapy

Immunotherapy is an advanced therapeutic strategy of cancer treatment but suffers from the issues of off-target adverse effects, lack of real-time monitoring techniques, and unsustainable response. Herein, an ultrasmall Au nanocluster (NC)-based theranostic probe is designed for second near-infrared window (NIR-II) photoluminescence (PL) imaging-guided phototherapies and photoactivatable cancer immunotherapy. The probe (Au44MBA26-NLG for short) is composed of atomically precise and NIR-II emitting Au44MBA26 NCs (here MBA denotes water-soluble 4-mercaptobenzoic acid) conjugated with immune checkpoint inhibitor 1-cyclohexyl-2-(5H-imidazo[5,1-a]isoindol-5-yl)ethanol (NLG919) via a singlet oxygen (1O2)-cleavable linker. Upon NIR photoirradiation, the Au44MBA26-NLG not only enables NIR-II PL imaging of tumors in deep tissues for guiding tumor therapy but also allows the leverage of photothermal property for cancer photothermal therapy (PTT) and the photogenerated 1O2 for photodynamic therapy (PDT) and releasing NLG919 for cancer immunotherapy. Such a multiple effect modulated by Au44MBA26-NLG prompts the proliferation and activation of effector T cells, upshifts systemic antitumor T-lymphocyte (T cell) immunity, and finally suppresses the growth of both primary and distant tumors in living mice. Overall, this study may provide a promising theranostic nanoplatform toward NIR-II PL imaging-guided phototherapies and photoactivatable cancer immunotherapy.

Ultrasmall Coinage Metal Nanoclusters as Promising Theranostic Probes for Biomedical Applications

Ultrasmall coinage metal nanoclusters (NCs, <3 nm) have emerged as a novel class of theranostic probes due to their atomically precise size and engineered physicochemical properties. The rapid advances in the design and applications of metal NC-based theranostic probes are made possible by the atomic-level engineering of metal NCs. This Perspective article examines (i) how the functions of metal NCs are engineered for theranostic applications, (ii) how a metal NC-based theranostic probe is designed and how its physicochemical properties affect the theranostic performance, and (iii) how metal NCs are used to diagnose and treat various diseases. We first summarize the tailored properties of metal NCs for theranostic applications in terms of biocompatibility and tumor targeting. We focus our discussion on the theranostic applications of metal NCs in bioimaging-directed disease diagnosis, photoinduced disease therapy, nanomedicine, drug delivery, and optical urinalysis. Lastly, an outlook on the challenges and opportunities in the future development of metal NCs for theranostic applications is provided.