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Ingham B, Sung R, Kay P, Hollywood K, Wongsirichot P, Veitch A, Winterburn J. Determining the accuracy and suitability of common analytical techniques for sophorolipid biosurfactants. J Ind Microbiol Biotechnol 2024; 51:kuae021. [PMID: 38906848 PMCID: PMC11223654 DOI: 10.1093/jimb/kuae021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/02/2024] [Accepted: 06/20/2024] [Indexed: 06/23/2024]
Abstract
To determine the performance of a sophorolipid biosurfactant production process, it is important to have accurate and specific analytical techniques in place. Among the most popular are the anthrone assay, gravimetric quantification (hexane:ethyl acetate extraction), and high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). The choice of analytical tool varies depending on cost, availability, and ease of use; however, these techniques have never been compared directly against one another. In this work, 75 fermentation broths with varying product/substrate concentrations were comprehensively tested with the 3 techniques and compared. HPLC-ultraviolet detection (198 nm) was capable of quantifying C18:1 subterminal hydroxyl diacetylated lactonic sophorolipid down to a lower limit of 0.3 g/L with low variability (<3.21%). Gravimetric quantification of the broths following liquid:liquid extraction with hexane and ethyl acetate showed some linearity (R2 = .658) when compared to HPLC but could not quantify lower than 11.06 g/L, even when no sophorolipids were detected in the sample, highlighting the non-specificity of the method to co-extract non-sophorolipid components in the final gravimetric measure. The anthrone assay showed no linearity (R2 = .129) and was found to cross-react with media components (rapeseed oil, corn steep liquor, glucose), leading to consistent overestimation of sophorolipid concentration. The appearance of poor biomass separation during sample preparation with centrifugation was noted and resolved with a novel sample preparation method with pure ethanol. Extensive analysis and comparisons of the most common sophorolipid quantification techniques are explored and the limitations/advantages are highlighted. The findings provide a guide for scientists to make an informed decision on the suitable quantification tool that meets their needs, exploring all aspects of the analysis process from harvest, sample preparation, and analysis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Benjamin Ingham
- Department of Chemical Engineering, The University of Manchester, Oxford Road, Manchester M13 9PL, UK
| | - Rehana Sung
- Manchester Institute of Biotechnology, Department of Chemistry, University of Manchester, Manchester M1 7DN, UK
| | - Phil Kay
- JMP Statistical Discovery LLC, Wittington House, Henley Road, Medmenham, Marlow SL7 2EB, UK
| | - Katherine Hollywood
- Manchester Institute of Biotechnology, Department of Chemistry, University of Manchester, Manchester M1 7DN, UK
| | - Phavit Wongsirichot
- Department of Chemical Engineering, The University of Manchester, Oxford Road, Manchester M13 9PL, UK
| | - Alistair Veitch
- Holiferm Ltd, Unit 15, Severnside Trading Estate, Textilose Road, Trafford Park, Stretford, Manchester M17 1WA, UK
| | - James Winterburn
- Department of Chemical Engineering, The University of Manchester, Oxford Road, Manchester M13 9PL, UK
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Sophorolipids—Bio-Based Antimicrobial Formulating Agents for Applications in Food and Health. Molecules 2022; 27:molecules27175556. [PMID: 36080322 PMCID: PMC9457973 DOI: 10.3390/molecules27175556] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/25/2022] [Revised: 08/25/2022] [Accepted: 08/25/2022] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Sophorolipids are well-known glycolipid biosurfactants, produced mainly by non-pathogenic yeast species such as Candida bombicola with high yield. Its unique environmental compatibility and high biodegradable properties have made them a focus in the present review for their promising applications in diverse areas. This study aims to examine current research trends of sophorolipids and evaluate their applications in food and health. A literature search was conducted using different research databases including PubMed, ScienceDirect, EBSCOhost, and Wiley Online Library to identify studies on the fundamental mechanisms of sophorolipids and their applications in food and health. Studies have shown that various structural forms of sophorolipids exhibit different biological and physicochemical properties. Sophorolipids represent one of the most attractive biosurfactants in the industry due to their antimicrobial action against both Gram-positive and Gram-negative microorganisms for applications in food and health sectors. In this review, we have provided an overview on the fundamental properties of sophorolipids and detailed analysis of their applications in diverse areas such as food, agriculture, pharmaceutical, cosmetic, anticancer, and antimicrobial activities.
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Dengle Pulate V, Bhagwat S, Prabhune A. Microbial Oxidation of Medium Chain Fatty Alcohol in the Synthesis of Sophorolipids by Candida bombicola and its Physicochemical Characterization. J SURFACTANTS DETERG 2012. [DOI: 10.1007/s11743-012-1378-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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Abstract
Two types of carbon sources-carbohydrate and vegetable oil-are necessary to obtain large yields of biosurfactant from Torulopsis bombicola ATCC 22214. Most of the surfactant is produced in the late exponential phase of growth. It is possible to grow the yeast on a single carbon source and then add the other type of substrate, after the exponential growth phase, and cause a burst of surfactant production. This product is a mixture of glycolipids. The maximum yield is 70 g liter, or 35% of the weight of the substrate used. An economic comparison demonstrated that this biosurfactant could be produced significantly more cheaply than any of the previously reported microbial surfactants.
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Affiliation(s)
- D G Cooper
- Department of Chemical Engineering, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec, Canada H3A 2A7
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Van Bogaert INA, Saerens K, De Muynck C, Develter D, Soetaert W, Vandamme EJ. Microbial production and application of sophorolipids. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 2007; 76:23-34. [PMID: 17476500 DOI: 10.1007/s00253-007-0988-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 287] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/16/2007] [Revised: 04/04/2007] [Accepted: 04/06/2007] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Sophorolipids are surface-active compounds synthesized by a selected number of yeast species. They have been known for over 40 years, but because of growing environmental awareness, they recently regained attention as biosurfactants due to their biodegradability, low ecotoxicity, and production based on renewable resources. In this paper, an overview is given of the producing yeast strains and various aspects of fermentative sophorolipid production. Also, the biochemical pathways and regulatory mechanisms involved in sophorolipid biosynthesis are outlined. To conclude, a summary is given on possible applications of sophorolipids, either as native or modified molecules.
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Affiliation(s)
- Inge N A Van Bogaert
- Laboratory of Industrial Microbiology and Biocatalysis, Department of Biochemical and Microbial Technology, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, Coupure Links 653, 9000, Ghent, Belgium.
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Pekin G, Vardar-Sukan F, Kosaric N. Production of Sophorolipids fromCandida bombicola ATCC 22214 Using Turkish Corn Oil and Honey. Eng Life Sci 2005. [DOI: 10.1002/elsc.200520086] [Citation(s) in RCA: 80] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022] Open
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Mechanisms and occurrence of microbial oxidation of long-chain alkanes. ADVANCES IN BIOCHEMICAL ENGINEERING/BIOTECHNOLOGY 2005. [DOI: 10.1007/3-540-10464-x_18] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register]
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Hu Y, Ju LK. Sophorolipid production from different lipid precursors observed with LC-MS. Enzyme Microb Technol 2001. [DOI: 10.1016/s0141-0229(01)00439-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 70] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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Lottermoser K, Schunck WH, Asperger O. Cytochromes P450 of the sophorose lipid-producing yeast Candida apicola: Heterogeneity and polymerase chain reaction-mediated cloning of two genes. Yeast 1998. [DOI: 10.1002/(sici)1097-0061(199605)12:6<565::aid-yea951>3.0.co;2-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
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Lottermoser K, Schunck WH, Asperger O. Cytochromes P450 of the sophorose lipid-producing yeast Candida apicola: heterogeneity and polymerase chain reaction-mediated cloning of two genes. Yeast 1996; 12:565-75. [PMID: 8771711 DOI: 10.1002/(sici)1097-0061(199605)12:6%3c565::aid-yea951%3e3.0.co;2-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Candida apicola belongs to a group of yeasts producing high amounts of surface-active extracellular glycolipids consisting of sophorose and long-chain-omega- and (omega-1)-hydroxy fatty acids. The involvement of cytochrome P450 in the synthesis of sophorose lipid by the hydroxylation of long-chain fatty acids was suggested from a simultaneous increase of cellular P450 content. Hydroxylation studies indicated the existence of multiple P450 forms capable of hydroxylating not only long-chain fatty acids, but also n-alkanes. In this report, two different P450 DNA fragments amplified in a polymerase chain reaction with heterologous primers and chromosomal DNA of Candida apicola were used as homologous probes for the isolation of full-length clones from a genomic library. The open reading frames of both genes encode proteins of 519 amino acids with calculated molecular weights of 58,656 and 58,631, respectively, that contain N-terminal membrane anchor sequences and hallmark residues, in common with other eukaryotic P450s. The deduced amino acid sequences of the C. apicola P450 genes are 84.4% identical. They share 34.5 to 44.1% identity with the proteins of the yeast family CYP52 and about 25% identity with fatty acid hydroxylases of higher eukaryotes (family CYP4A) and of Bacillus megaterium (CYP102). Southern hybridization experiments revealed the existence of further P450-related genes in C. apicola. According to the P450 nomenclature system, the cloned genes were named CYP52E1 and CYP52E2, establishing a new subfamily in yeast family CYP52.
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Affiliation(s)
- K Lottermoser
- Max Delbrueck Centre of Molecular Medicine, Berlin, Germany
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Davila AM, Marchal R, Monin N, Vandecasteele JP. Identification and determination of individual sophorolipids in fermentation products by gradient elution high-performance liquid chromatography with evaporative light-scattering detection. J Chromatogr A 1993; 648:139-49. [PMID: 8245170 DOI: 10.1016/0021-9673(93)83295-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/29/2023]
Abstract
High-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) was used for the characterization of sophorolipids, one of the most important types of glycolipid biosurfactants. By using gradient elution with a water-acetonitrile mixture on a reversed-phase (C18) column and evaporative light-scattering detection, resolution of all the important individual sophorolipids present in fermentation products was achieved. In addition to HPLC, a combination of techniques involving selective production by fermentation of sophorolipids, chemical conversions of the products, separation methods and, for identification of lipidic chains of sophorolipids, gas chromatography and mass spectrometry was used. This led to the identification of almost all significant compounds observed in HPLC, including several previously unreported sophorolipids. As a result, a rapid method is now available for investigations of the influence of fermentation conditions on the nature and quantitative distribution of the sophorolipid products obtained.
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Affiliation(s)
- A M Davila
- Institut Français du Pétrole, Rueil-Malmaison, France
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Yi ZH, Rehm HJ. Metabolic formation of dodecanedioic acid from n-dodecane by a mutant of Candida tropicalis. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 1982. [DOI: 10.1007/bf00498473] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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Cooper D, Zajic J. Surface-Active Compounds from Microorganisms. ADVANCES IN APPLIED MICROBIOLOGY 1980. [DOI: 10.1016/s0065-2164(08)70335-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
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Serck-Hanssen K. Optically active higher aliphatic hydroxy compounds synthesized from chiral precursors by chain extension. PROGRESS IN THE CHEMISTRY OF FATS AND OTHER LIPIDS 1978; 16:179-93. [PMID: 358264 DOI: 10.1016/0079-6832(78)90043-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
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Sheldon RA, Kochi JK. Metal-Catalyzed Oxidations of Organic Compounds in the Liquid Phase: A Mechanistic Approach. ADVANCES IN CATALYSIS 1976. [DOI: 10.1016/s0360-0564(08)60316-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 93] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/03/2022]
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Abstract
Arthrobacter 4-44-2 (ATCC 25581), capable of subterminal oxidation of n-hexadecane to 2-, 3-, and 4-alcoholic and ketonic products, was examined for the ability of this methylene hydroxylase capability to be induced and repressed and for structural relationships influencing methylene function oxidation. Induction was best carried out by use of n-alkanes from 10 to 16 carbons in length and was especially strong with methylcyclohexane among cyclic compounds tested. Induction was not observed with several related alcohols, 1-unsaturated compounds, or methoxy and ethoxy compounds tested. After induction, n-alkanes 14 and 16 carbons in length were transformed to the corresponding internal oxidation products; however, no activity was observed with even-carbon alkanes of shorter chain length. Hexadecene-1 and all alcohols tested, including cyclododecanol, were transformed to corresponding ketonic or aldehydic products. Cyclic compounds tested, including cyclododecane, were not oxidized by induced cells, suggesting that a methyl group plays a role in orientation of the substrate for the methylene hydroxylation but that the methyl function was not as critical after completion of the hydroxylation step regardless of structural configuration. Acetate strongly repressed induction of n-hexadecane methylene hydroxylase activity. Inducibility of methylene hydroxylase activity was confirmed by use of cell-free systems with methylcyclohexane as an inducer. A stimulation of methylene hydroxylase activity by addition of reduced pyridine nucleotides and ferrous ion was indicated.
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Abbott BJ, Gledhill WE. The extracellular accumulation of metabolic products by hydrocarbon-degrading microorganisms. ADVANCES IN APPLIED MICROBIOLOGY 1971; 14:249-388. [PMID: 4946255 DOI: 10.1016/s0065-2164(08)70546-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
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