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Opperdoes FR, Záhonová K, Škodová-Sveráková I, Bučková B, Chmelová Ľ, Lukeš J, Yurchenko V. In silico prediction of the metabolism of Blastocrithidia nonstop, a trypanosomatid with non-canonical genetic code. BMC Genomics 2024; 25:184. [PMID: 38365628 PMCID: PMC10874023 DOI: 10.1186/s12864-024-10094-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/03/2023] [Accepted: 02/06/2024] [Indexed: 02/18/2024] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Almost all extant organisms use the same, so-called canonical, genetic code with departures from it being very rare. Even more exceptional are the instances when a eukaryote with non-canonical code can be easily cultivated and has its whole genome and transcriptome sequenced. This is the case of Blastocrithidia nonstop, a trypanosomatid flagellate that reassigned all three stop codons to encode amino acids. RESULTS We in silico predicted the metabolism of B. nonstop and compared it with that of the well-studied human parasites Trypanosoma brucei and Leishmania major. The mapped mitochondrial, glycosomal and cytosolic metabolism contains all typical features of these diverse and important parasites. We also provided experimental validation for some of the predicted observations, concerning, specifically presence of glycosomes, cellular respiration, and assembly of the respiratory complexes. CONCLUSIONS In an unusual comparison of metabolism between a parasitic protist with a massively altered genetic code and its close relatives that rely on a canonical code we showed that the dramatic differences on the level of nucleic acids do not seem to be reflected in the metabolisms. Moreover, although the genome of B. nonstop is extremely AT-rich, we could not find any alterations of its pyrimidine synthesis pathway when compared to other trypanosomatids. Hence, we conclude that the dramatic alteration of the genetic code of B. nonstop has no significant repercussions on the metabolism of this flagellate.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fred R Opperdoes
- de Duve Institute, Université catholique de Louvain, Brussels, Belgium
| | - Kristína Záhonová
- Life Science Research Centre, Faculty of Science, University of Ostrava, Ostrava, Czechia
- Institute of Parasitology, Biology Centre, Czech Academy of Sciences, České Budějovice, Czechia
- Department of Parasitology, Faculty of Science, Charles University, BIOCEV, Vestec, Czechia
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Canada
| | - Ingrid Škodová-Sveráková
- Life Science Research Centre, Faculty of Science, University of Ostrava, Ostrava, Czechia
- Institute of Parasitology, Biology Centre, Czech Academy of Sciences, České Budějovice, Czechia
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Natural Sciences, Comenius University, Bratislava, Slovakia
| | - Barbora Bučková
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Natural Sciences, Comenius University, Bratislava, Slovakia
| | - Ľubomíra Chmelová
- Life Science Research Centre, Faculty of Science, University of Ostrava, Ostrava, Czechia
| | - Julius Lukeš
- Institute of Parasitology, Biology Centre, Czech Academy of Sciences, České Budějovice, Czechia
- Faculty of Science, University of South Bohemia, České Budějovice, Czechia
| | - Vyacheslav Yurchenko
- Life Science Research Centre, Faculty of Science, University of Ostrava, Ostrava, Czechia.
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Menezes AP, Murillo AM, de Castro CG, Bellini NK, Tosi LRO, Thiemann OH, Elias MC, Silber AM, da Cunha JPC. Navigating the boundaries between metabolism and epigenetics in trypanosomes. Trends Parasitol 2023; 39:682-695. [PMID: 37349193 DOI: 10.1016/j.pt.2023.05.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2023] [Revised: 05/24/2023] [Accepted: 05/24/2023] [Indexed: 06/24/2023]
Abstract
Epigenetic marks enable cells to acquire new biological features that favor their adaptation to environmental changes. These marks are chemical modifications on chromatin-associated proteins and nucleic acids that lead to changes in the chromatin landscape and may eventually affect gene expression. The chemical tags of these epigenetic marks are comprised of intermediate cellular metabolites. The number of discovered associations between metabolism and epigenetics has increased, revealing how environment influences gene regulation and phenotype diversity. This connection is relevant to all organisms but underappreciated in digenetic parasites, which must adapt to different environments as they progress through their life cycles. This review speculates and proposes associations between epigenetics and metabolism in trypanosomes, which are protozoan parasites that cause human and livestock diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ana Paula Menezes
- Laboratório de Ciclo Celular - Instituto Butantan, São Paulo-SP, Brazil; Centro de Toxinas, Resposta Imune e Sinalização Celular (CeTICS), Instituto Butantan, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Ana Milena Murillo
- Laboratório de Bioquímica de Tryps - LabTryps, Departamento de Parasitologia, Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo-SP, Brazil
| | - Camila Gachet de Castro
- Laboratório de Ciclo Celular - Instituto Butantan, São Paulo-SP, Brazil; Centro de Toxinas, Resposta Imune e Sinalização Celular (CeTICS), Instituto Butantan, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Natalia Karla Bellini
- Laboratório de Ciclo Celular - Instituto Butantan, São Paulo-SP, Brazil; Centro de Toxinas, Resposta Imune e Sinalização Celular (CeTICS), Instituto Butantan, São Paulo, Brazil
| | | | | | - Maria Carolina Elias
- Laboratório de Ciclo Celular - Instituto Butantan, São Paulo-SP, Brazil; Centro de Toxinas, Resposta Imune e Sinalização Celular (CeTICS), Instituto Butantan, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Ariel Mariano Silber
- Laboratório de Bioquímica de Tryps - LabTryps, Departamento de Parasitologia, Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo-SP, Brazil.
| | - Julia Pinheiro Chagas da Cunha
- Laboratório de Ciclo Celular - Instituto Butantan, São Paulo-SP, Brazil; Centro de Toxinas, Resposta Imune e Sinalização Celular (CeTICS), Instituto Butantan, São Paulo, Brazil.
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Lemieux H, Blier PU. Exploring Thermal Sensitivities and Adaptations of Oxidative Phosphorylation Pathways. Metabolites 2022; 12:metabo12040360. [PMID: 35448547 PMCID: PMC9025460 DOI: 10.3390/metabo12040360] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/22/2022] [Revised: 04/08/2022] [Accepted: 04/11/2022] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Temperature shifts are a major challenge to animals; they drive adaptations in organisms and species, and affect all physiological functions in ectothermic organisms. Understanding the origin and mechanisms of these adaptations is critical for determining whether ectothermic organisms will be able to survive when faced with global climate change. Mitochondrial oxidative phosphorylation is thought to be an important metabolic player in this regard, since the capacity of the mitochondria to produce energy greatly varies according to temperature. However, organism survival and fitness depend not only on how much energy is produced, but, more precisely, on how oxidative phosphorylation is affected and which step of the process dictates thermal sensitivity. These questions need to be addressed from a new perspective involving a complex view of mitochondrial oxidative phosphorylation and its related pathways. In this review, we examine the effect of temperature on the commonly measured pathways, but mainly focus on the potential impact of lesser-studied pathways and related steps, including the electron-transferring flavoprotein pathway, glycerophosphate dehydrogenase, dihydroorotate dehydrogenase, choline dehydrogenase, proline dehydrogenase, and sulfide:quinone oxidoreductase. Our objective is to reveal new avenues of research that can address the impact of temperature on oxidative phosphorylation in all its complexity to better portray the limitations and the potential adaptations of aerobic metabolism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hélène Lemieux
- Faculty Saint-Jean, Department of Medicine, Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB T6C 4G9, Canada
- Correspondence: (H.L.); (P.U.B.)
| | - Pierre U. Blier
- Department Biologie, Université du Québec à Rimouski, Rimouski, QC G5L 3A1, Canada
- Correspondence: (H.L.); (P.U.B.)
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Zíková A. Mitochondrial adaptations throughout the Trypanosoma brucei life cycle. J Eukaryot Microbiol 2022; 69:e12911. [PMID: 35325490 DOI: 10.1111/jeu.12911] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2022] [Revised: 03/18/2022] [Accepted: 03/18/2022] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Abstract
The unicellular parasite Trypanosoma brucei has a digenetic life cycle that alternates between a mammalian host and an insect vector. During programmed development, this extracellular parasite encounters strikingly different environments that determine its energy metabolism. Functioning as a bioenergetic, biosynthetic, and signaling center, the single mitochondrion of T. brucei is drastically remodeled to support the dynamic cellular demands of the parasite. This manuscript will provide an up-to-date overview of how the distinct T. brucei developmental stages differ in their mitochondrial metabolic and bioenergetic pathways, with a focus on the electron transport chain, proline oxidation, TCA cycle, acetate production, and ATP generation. Although mitochondrial metabolic rewiring has always been simply viewed as a consequence of the differentiation process, the possibility that certain mitochondrial activities reinforce parasite differentiation will be explored.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alena Zíková
- Biology Centre CAS, Institute of Parasitology, University of South Bohemia, Faculty of Science, České Budějovice, Czech Republic
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Mantilla BS, Paes-Vieira L, de Almeida Dias F, Calderano SG, Elias MC, Cosentino-Gomes D, Oliveira PL, Meyer-Fernandes JR, Silber AM. Higher expression of proline dehydrogenase altered mitochondrial function and increased Trypanosoma cruzi differentiation in vitro and in the insect vector. Biochem J 2021; 478:3891-3903. [PMID: 34661234 DOI: 10.1042/bcj20210428] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/23/2021] [Revised: 10/14/2021] [Accepted: 10/15/2021] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
Abstract
The pathogenic protist Trypanosoma cruzi uses kissing bugs as invertebrate hosts that vectorize the infection among mammals. This parasite oxidizes proline to glutamate through two enzymatic steps and one nonenzymatic step. In insect vectors, T. cruzi differentiates from a noninfective replicating form to nonproliferative infective forms. Proline sustains this differentiation, but to date, a link between proline metabolism and differentiation has not been established. In T. cruzi, the enzymatic steps of the proline-glutamate oxidation pathway are catalyzed exclusively by the mitochondrial enzymes proline dehydrogenase [TcPRODH, EC: 1.5.5.2] and Δ1-pyrroline-5-carboxylate dehydrogenase [TcP5CDH, EC: 1.2.1.88]. Both enzymatic steps produce reducing equivalents that are able to directly feed the mitochondrial electron transport chain (ETC) and thus produce ATP. In this study, we demonstrate the contribution of each enzyme of the proline-glutamate pathway to ATP production. In addition, we show that parasites overexpressing these enzymes produce increased levels of H2O2, but only those overexpressing TcP5CDH produce increased levels of superoxide anion. We show that parasites overexpressing TcPRODH, but not parasites overexpressing TcP5CDH, exhibit a higher rate of differentiation into metacyclic trypomastigotes in vitro. Finally, insect hosts infected with parasites overexpressing TcPRODH showed a diminished parasitic load but a higher percent of metacyclic trypomastigotes, when compared with controls. Our data show that parasites overexpressing both, PRODH and P5CDH had increased mitochondrial functions that orchestrated different oxygen signaling, resulting in different outcomes in relation to the efficiency of parasitic differentiation in the invertebrate host.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brian S Mantilla
- Laboratory of Biochemistry of Tryps- LabTryps, Department of Parasitology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, SP, Brazil
| | - Lisvane Paes-Vieira
- Laboratory of Biochemistry of Tryps- LabTryps, Department of Parasitology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, SP, Brazil
- Instituto de Bioquímica Médica Leopoldo de Meis, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil
| | - Felipe de Almeida Dias
- Instituto de Bioquímica Médica Leopoldo de Meis, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil
| | - Simone G Calderano
- Laboratório de Ciclo Celular, Center of Toxines, Immune response and Cell Signallig, Instituto Butantan, São Paulo, Brasil
| | - Maria Carolina Elias
- Laboratório de Ciclo Celular, Center of Toxines, Immune response and Cell Signallig, Instituto Butantan, São Paulo, Brasil
| | - Daniela Cosentino-Gomes
- Instituto de Bioquímica Médica Leopoldo de Meis, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil
| | - Pedro L Oliveira
- Instituto de Bioquímica Médica Leopoldo de Meis, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil
| | - José Roberto Meyer-Fernandes
- Instituto de Bioquímica Médica Leopoldo de Meis, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil
| | - Ariel M Silber
- Laboratory of Biochemistry of Tryps- LabTryps, Department of Parasitology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, SP, Brazil
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Zheng Y, Cabassa-Hourton C, Planchais S, Lebreton S, Savouré A. The proline cycle as an eukaryotic redox valve. JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL BOTANY 2021; 72:6856-6866. [PMID: 34331757 DOI: 10.1093/jxb/erab361] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/01/2021] [Accepted: 07/29/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
The amino acid proline has been known for many years to be a component of proteins as well as an osmolyte. Many recent studies have demonstrated that proline has other roles such as regulating redox balance and energy status. In animals and plants, the well-described proline cycle is concomitantly responsible for the preferential accumulation of proline and shuttling of redox equivalents from the cytosol to mitochondria. The impact of the proline cycle goes beyond regulating proline levels. In this review, we focus on recent evidence of how the proline cycle regulates redox status in relation to other redox shuttles. We discuss how the interconversion of proline and glutamate shuttles reducing power between cellular compartments. Spatial aspects of the proline cycle in the entire plant are considered in terms of proline transport between organs with different metabolic regimes (photosynthesis versus respiration). Furthermore, we highlight the importance of this shuttle in the regulation of energy and redox power in plants, through a particularly intricate coordination, notably between mitochondria and cytosol.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yao Zheng
- Sorbonne Université, UPEC, CNRS, IRD, INRAE, Institute of Ecology and Environmental Sciences of Paris (iEES), F-75005 Paris, France
| | - Cécile Cabassa-Hourton
- Sorbonne Université, UPEC, CNRS, IRD, INRAE, Institute of Ecology and Environmental Sciences of Paris (iEES), F-75005 Paris, France
| | - Séverine Planchais
- Sorbonne Université, UPEC, CNRS, IRD, INRAE, Institute of Ecology and Environmental Sciences of Paris (iEES), F-75005 Paris, France
| | - Sandrine Lebreton
- Sorbonne Université, UPEC, CNRS, IRD, INRAE, Institute of Ecology and Environmental Sciences of Paris (iEES), F-75005 Paris, France
| | - Arnould Savouré
- Sorbonne Université, UPEC, CNRS, IRD, INRAE, Institute of Ecology and Environmental Sciences of Paris (iEES), F-75005 Paris, France
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Naguleswaran A, Fernandes P, Bevkal S, Rehmann R, Nicholson P, Roditi I. Developmental changes and metabolic reprogramming during establishment of infection and progression of Trypanosoma brucei brucei through its insect host. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2021; 15:e0009504. [PMID: 34543277 PMCID: PMC8483307 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0009504] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/11/2021] [Revised: 09/30/2021] [Accepted: 09/07/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Trypanosoma brucei ssp., unicellular parasites causing human and animal trypanosomiasis, are transmitted between mammals by tsetse flies. Periodic changes in variant surface glycoproteins (VSG), which form the parasite coat in the mammal, allow them to evade the host immune response. Different isolates of T. brucei show heterogeneity in their repertoires of VSG genes and have single nucleotide polymorphisms and indels that can impact on genome editing. T. brucei brucei EATRO1125 (AnTaR1 serodeme) is an isolate that is used increasingly often because it is pleomorphic in mammals and fly transmissible, two characteristics that have been lost by the most commonly used laboratory stocks. We present a genome assembly of EATRO1125, including contigs for the intermediate chromosomes and minichromosomes that serve as repositories of VSG genes. In addition, de novo transcriptome assemblies were performed using Illumina sequences from tsetse-derived trypanosomes. Reads of 150 bases enabled closely related members of multigene families to be discriminated. This revealed that the transcriptome of midgut-derived parasites is dynamic, starting with the expression of high affinity hexose transporters and glycolytic enzymes and then switching to proline uptake and catabolism. These changes resemble the transition from early to late procyclic forms in culture. Further metabolic reprogramming, including upregulation of tricarboxylic acid cycle enzymes, occurs in the proventriculus. Many transcripts upregulated in the salivary glands encode surface proteins, among them 7 metacyclic VSGs, multiple BARPs and GCS1/HAP2, a marker for gametes. A novel family of transmembrane proteins, containing polythreonine stretches that are predicted to be O-glycosylation sites, was also identified. Finally, RNA-Seq data were used to create an optimised annotation file with 5’ and 3’ untranslated regions accurately mapped for 9302 genes. We anticipate that this will be of use in identifying transcripts obtained by single cell sequencing technologies. Trypanosoma brucei ssp. are single-celled parasites that cause two tropical diseases: sleeping sickness in humans and nagana in domestic animals. Parasites survive in the host bloodstream because they periodically change their surface coats and also because they can switch from slender dividing forms to stumpy non-dividing forms. The latter can be transmitted to their second host, the tsetse fly. Although closely related, different geographical isolates differ in their repertoire of surface coats and have small, but important differences in their DNA sequences. In addition, laboratory strains that are transferred between mammals by needle passage lose the ability to produce stumpy forms and to infect flies. The isolate T. b. brucei EATRO1125 is often used for research as it produces stumpy forms and is fly transmissible. We provide an assembly of the genome of this isolate, including part of the repertoire of coat proteins, and a detailed analysis of the genes that the parasites express as they establish infection and progress through the fly. This has provided new insights into trypanosome biology. The combined genomic (DNA) and transcriptomic (RNA) data will be useful resources for the trypanosome research community.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Paula Fernandes
- Institute of Cell Biology, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
- Graduate School of Cellular and Biomedical Sciences, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
| | - Shubha Bevkal
- Institute of Cell Biology, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
- Graduate School of Cellular and Biomedical Sciences, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
| | - Ruth Rehmann
- Institute of Cell Biology, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
| | - Pamela Nicholson
- Next Generation Sequencing Platform, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
| | - Isabel Roditi
- Institute of Cell Biology, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
- * E-mail:
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Souza ROO, Damasceno FS, Marsiccobetre S, Biran M, Murata G, Curi R, Bringaud F, Silber AM. Fatty acid oxidation participates in resistance to nutrient-depleted environments in the insect stages of Trypanosoma cruzi. PLoS Pathog 2021; 17:e1009495. [PMID: 33819309 PMCID: PMC8049481 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1009495] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/15/2021] [Revised: 04/15/2021] [Accepted: 03/23/2021] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Trypanosoma cruzi, the parasite causing Chagas disease, is a digenetic flagellated protist that infects mammals (including humans) and reduviid insect vectors. Therefore, T. cruzi must colonize different niches in order to complete its life cycle in both hosts. This fact determines the need of adaptations to face challenging environmental cues. The primary environmental challenge, particularly in the insect stages, is poor nutrient availability. In this regard, it is well known that T. cruzi has a flexible metabolism able to rapidly switch from carbohydrates (mainly glucose) to amino acids (mostly proline) consumption. Also established has been the capability of T. cruzi to use glucose and amino acids to support the differentiation process occurring in the insect, from replicative non-infective epimastigotes to non-replicative infective metacyclic trypomastigotes. However, little is known about the possibilities of using externally available and internally stored fatty acids as resources to survive in nutrient-poor environments, and to sustain metacyclogenesis. In this study, we revisit the metabolic fate of fatty acid breakdown in T. cruzi. Herein, we show that during parasite proliferation, the glucose concentration in the medium can regulate the fatty acid metabolism. At the stationary phase, the parasites fully oxidize fatty acids. [U-14C]-palmitate can be taken up from the medium, leading to CO2 production. Additionally, we show that electrons are fed directly to oxidative phosphorylation, and acetyl-CoA is supplied to the tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle, which can be used to feed anabolic pathways such as the de novo biosynthesis of fatty acids. Finally, we show as well that the inhibition of fatty acids mobilization into the mitochondrion diminishes the survival to severe starvation, and impairs metacyclogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rodolpho Ornitz Oliveira Souza
- University of São Paulo, Laboratory of Biochemistry of Tryps–LaBTryps, Department of Parasitology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences–São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Flávia Silva Damasceno
- University of São Paulo, Laboratory of Biochemistry of Tryps–LaBTryps, Department of Parasitology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences–São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Sabrina Marsiccobetre
- University of São Paulo, Laboratory of Biochemistry of Tryps–LaBTryps, Department of Parasitology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences–São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Marc Biran
- Centre de Résonance Magnétique des Systèmes Biologiques (RMSB), Université de Bordeaux, Bordeaux, France
| | - Gilson Murata
- University of São Paulo, Department of Physiology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences–São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Rui Curi
- University of São Paulo, Department of Physiology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences–São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
- Cruzeiro do Sul University, Interdisciplinary Post-Graduate Program in Health Sciences—São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Frédéric Bringaud
- Laboratoire de Microbiologie Fondamentale et Pathogénicité (MFP), Université de Bordeaux, Bordeaux, France
| | - Ariel Mariano Silber
- University of São Paulo, Laboratory of Biochemistry of Tryps–LaBTryps, Department of Parasitology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences–São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
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