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Solov'eva TF, Bakholdina SI, Naberezhnykh GA. Host Defense Proteins and Peptides with Lipopolysaccharide-Binding Activity from Marine Invertebrates and Their Therapeutic Potential in Gram-Negative Sepsis. Mar Drugs 2023; 21:581. [PMID: 37999405 PMCID: PMC10672452 DOI: 10.3390/md21110581] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/21/2023] [Revised: 10/16/2023] [Accepted: 10/30/2023] [Indexed: 11/25/2023] Open
Abstract
Sepsis is a life-threatening complication of an infectious process that results from the excessive and uncontrolled activation of the host's pro-inflammatory immune response to a pathogen. Lipopolysaccharide (LPS), also known as endotoxin, which is a major component of Gram-negative bacteria's outer membrane, plays a key role in the development of Gram-negative sepsis and septic shock in humans. To date, no specific and effective drug against sepsis has been developed. This review summarizes data on LPS-binding proteins from marine invertebrates (ILBPs) that inhibit LPS toxic effects and are of interest as potential drugs for sepsis treatment. The structure, physicochemical properties, antimicrobial, and LPS-binding/neutralizing activity of these proteins and their synthetic analogs are considered in detail. Problems that arise during clinical trials of potential anti-endotoxic drugs are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tamara Fedorovna Solov'eva
- G.B. Elyakov Pacific Institute of Bioorganic Chemistry, Far-Eastern Branch of the Russian Academy of Science, Vladivostok 690022, Russia
| | - Svetlana Ivanovna Bakholdina
- G.B. Elyakov Pacific Institute of Bioorganic Chemistry, Far-Eastern Branch of the Russian Academy of Science, Vladivostok 690022, Russia
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Tachypleus tridentatus Lectin Enhances Oncolytic Vaccinia Virus Replication to Suppress In Vivo Hepatocellular Carcinoma Growth. Mar Drugs 2018; 16:md16060200. [PMID: 29880736 PMCID: PMC6025575 DOI: 10.3390/md16060200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/20/2018] [Revised: 06/01/2018] [Accepted: 06/05/2018] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Lectins play diverse roles in physiological processes as biological recognition molecules. In this report, a gene encoding Tachypleus tridentatus Lectin (TTL) was inserted into an oncolytic vaccinia virus (oncoVV) vector to form oncoVV-TTL, which showed significant antitumor activity in a hepatocellular carcinoma mouse model. Furthermore, TTL enhanced oncoVV replication through suppressing antiviral factors expression such as interferon-inducible protein 16 (IFI16), mitochondrial antiviral signaling protein (MAVS) and interferon-beta (IFN-β). Further investigations revealed that oncoVV-TTL replication was highly dependent on ERK activity. This study might provide insights into a novel way of the utilization of TTL in oncolytic viral therapies.
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Dhawan R, Kumar M, Mohanty AK, Dey G, Advani J, Prasad TSK, Kumar A. Mosquito-Borne Diseases and Omics: Salivary Gland Proteome of the Female Aedes aegypti Mosquito. OMICS-A JOURNAL OF INTEGRATIVE BIOLOGY 2017; 21:45-54. [PMID: 28271980 DOI: 10.1089/omi.2016.0160] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
The female Aedes aegypti mosquito is an important vector for several tropical and subtropical diseases such as dengue, chikungunya, and Zika and yellow fever. The disease viruses infect the mosquito and subsequently spread to the salivary glands after which the viruses can be transmitted to humans with probing or feeding by the mosquito. Omics systems sciences offer the opportunity to characterize vectors and can inform disease surveillance, vector control and development of innovative diagnostics, personalized medicines, vaccines, and insecticide targets. Using high-resolution mass spectrometry, we performed an analysis of the A. aegypti salivary gland proteome. The A. aegypti proteome resulted in acquisition of 83,836 spectra. Upon searches against the protein database of the A. aegypti, these spectra were assigned to 5417 unique peptides, belonging to 1208 proteins. To the best of our knowledge, this is the largest set of proteins identified in the A. aegypti salivary gland. Of note, 29 proteins were involved in immunity-related pathways in salivary glands. A subset of these proteins is known to interact with disease viruses. Another 15 proteins with signal cleavage site were found to be secretory in nature, and thus possibly playing critical roles in blood meal ingestion. These findings provide a baseline to advance our understanding of vector-borne diseases and vector-pathogen interactions before virus transmission in global health, and might therefore enable future design and development of virus-blocking strategies and novel molecular targets in the mosquito vector A. aegypti.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rakhi Dhawan
- 1 Department of Community Medicine, Armed Forces Medical College , Pune, India .,2 National Institute of Malaria Research , Goa, India .,3 Department of Zoology, Goa University , Goa, India
| | - Manish Kumar
- 4 Institute of Bioinformatics , International Technology Park, Bangalore, India .,5 Manipal University , Manipal, India
| | | | - Gourav Dey
- 4 Institute of Bioinformatics , International Technology Park, Bangalore, India .,5 Manipal University , Manipal, India
| | - Jayshree Advani
- 4 Institute of Bioinformatics , International Technology Park, Bangalore, India .,5 Manipal University , Manipal, India
| | - T S Keshava Prasad
- 4 Institute of Bioinformatics , International Technology Park, Bangalore, India .,6 YU-IOB Center for Systems Biology and Molecular Medicine, Yenepoya University , Mangalore, India .,7 NIMHANS-IOB Proteomics and Bioinformatics Laboratory, Neurobiology Research Centre, National Institute of Mental Health and Neurosciences , Bangalore, India
| | - Ashwani Kumar
- 2 National Institute of Malaria Research , Goa, India
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Ng SK, Huang YT, Lee YC, Low EL, Chiu CH, Chen SL, Mao LC, Chang MDT. A recombinant horseshoe crab plasma lectin recognizes specific pathogen-associated molecular patterns of bacteria through rhamnose. PLoS One 2014; 9:e115296. [PMID: 25541995 PMCID: PMC4277298 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0115296] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/17/2014] [Accepted: 11/21/2014] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Horseshoe crab is an ancient marine arthropod that, in the absence of a vertebrate-like immune system, relies solely on innate immune responses by defense molecules found in hemolymph plasma and granular hemocytes for host defense. A plasma lectin isolated from the hemolymph of Taiwanese Tachypleus tridentatus recognizes bacteria and lipopolysaccharides (LPSs), yet its structure and mechanism of action remain unclear, largely because of limited availability of horseshoe crabs and the lack of a heterogeneous expression system. In this study, we have successfully expressed and purified a soluble and functional recombinant horseshoe crab plasma lectin (rHPL) in an Escherichia coli system. Interestingly, rHPL bound not only to bacteria and LPSs like the native HPL but also to selective medically important pathogens isolated from clinical specimens, such as Gram-negative Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Klebsiella pneumoniae and Gram-positive Streptococcus pneumoniae serotypes. The binding was demonstrated to occur through a specific molecular interaction with rhamnose in pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs) on the bacterial surface. Additionally, rHPL inhibited the growth of P. aeruginosa PAO1 in a concentration-dependent manner. The results suggest that a specific protein-glycan interaction between rHPL and rhamnosyl residue may further facilitate development of novel diagnostic and therapeutic strategies for microbial pathogens.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sim-Kun Ng
- Institute of Molecular and Cellular Biology & Department of Medical Science, National Tsing Hua University, Hsinchu, Taiwan, Republic of China
| | - Yu-Tsyr Huang
- Institute of Molecular and Cellular Biology & Department of Medical Science, National Tsing Hua University, Hsinchu, Taiwan, Republic of China
| | - Yuan-Chuan Lee
- Institute of Molecular and Cellular Biology & Department of Medical Science, National Tsing Hua University, Hsinchu, Taiwan, Republic of China
- Department of Biology, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Ee-Ling Low
- Institute of Molecular and Cellular Biology & Department of Medical Science, National Tsing Hua University, Hsinchu, Taiwan, Republic of China
| | - Cheng-Hsun Chiu
- Department of Pediatrics, Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, Taoyuan Hsien, Taiwan, Republic of China
| | - Shiu-Ling Chen
- Department of Pediatrics, Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, Taoyuan Hsien, Taiwan, Republic of China
| | - Liang-Chi Mao
- Simpson Biotech Co., Ltd., Kuei Shan, Taoyuan County, Taiwan, Republic of China
| | - Margaret Dah-Tsyr Chang
- Institute of Molecular and Cellular Biology & Department of Medical Science, National Tsing Hua University, Hsinchu, Taiwan, Republic of China
- * E-mail:
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Microbe-specific C3b deposition in the horseshoe crab complement system in a C2/factor B-dependent or -independent manner. PLoS One 2012; 7:e36783. [PMID: 22611464 PMCID: PMC3351276 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0036783] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/09/2012] [Accepted: 04/09/2012] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Complement C3 plays an essential role in the opsonization of pathogens in the mammalian complement system, whereas the molecular mechanism underlying C3 activation in invertebrates remains unknown. To understand the molecular mechanism of C3b deposition on microbes, we characterized two types of C2/factor B homologs (designated TtC2/Bf-1 and TtC2/Bf-2) identified from the horseshoe crab Tachypleus tridentatus. Although the domain architectures of TtC2/Bf-1 and TtC2/Bf-2 were identical to those of mammalian homologs, they contained five-repeated and seven-repeated complement control protein domains at their N-terminal regions, respectively. TtC2/Bf-1 and TtC2/Bf-2 were synthesized and glycosylated in hemocytes and secreted to hemolymph plasma, which existed in a complex with C3 (TtC3), and their activation by microbes was absolutely Mg2+-dependent. Flow cytometric analysis revealed that TtC3b deposition was Mg2+-dependent on Gram-positive bacteria or fungi, but not on Gram-negative bacteria. Moreover, this analysis demonstrated that Ca2+-dependent lectins (C-reactive protein-1 and tachylectin-5A) were required for TtC3b deposition on Gram-positive bacteria, and that a Ca2+-independent lectin (Tachypleus plasma lectin-1) was definitely indispensable for TtC3b deposition on fungi. In contrast, a horseshoe crab lipopolysaccharide-sensitive protease factor C was necessary and sufficient to deposit TtC3b on Gram-negative bacteria. We conclude that plasma lectins and factor C play key roles in microbe-specific TtC3b deposition in a C2/factor B-dependent or -independent manner.
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Oliveira C, Teixeira JA, Domingues L. Recombinant lectins: an array of tailor-made glycan-interaction biosynthetic tools. Crit Rev Biotechnol 2012; 33:66-80. [DOI: 10.3109/07388551.2012.670614] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
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Low DHP, Ang Z, Yuan Q, Frecer V, Ho B, Chen J, Ding JL. A novel human tectonin protein with multivalent beta-propeller folds interacts with ficolin and binds bacterial LPS. PLoS One 2009; 4:e6260. [PMID: 19606221 PMCID: PMC2707011 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0006260] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/12/2009] [Accepted: 06/19/2009] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Although the human genome database has been completed a decade ago, approximately 50% of the proteome remains hypothetical as their functions are unknown. The elucidation of the functions of these hypothetical proteins can lead to additional protein pathways and revelation of new cascades. However, many of these inferences are limited to proteins with substantial sequence similarity. Of particular interest here is the Tectonin domain-containing family of proteins. METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS We have identified hTectonin, a hypothetical protein in the human genome database, as a distant ortholog of the limulus galactose binding protein (GBP). Phylogenetic analysis revealed strong evolutionary conservation of hTectonin homologues from parasite to human. By computational analysis, we showed that both the hTectonin and GBP form beta-propeller structures with multiple Tectonin domains, each containing beta-sheets of 4 strands per beta-sheet. hTectonin is present in the human leukocyte cDNA library and immune-related cell lines. It interacts with M-ficolin, a known human complement protein whose ancient homolog, carcinolectin (CL5), is the functional protein partner of GBP during infection. Yeast 2-hybrid assay showed that only the Tectonin domains of hTectonin recognize the fibrinogen-like domain of the M-ficolin. Surface plasmon resonance analysis showed real-time interaction between the Tectonin domains 6 & 11 and bacterial LPS, indicating that despite forming 2 beta-propellers with its different Tectonin domains, the hTectonin molecule could precisely employ domains 6 & 11 to recognise bacteria. CONCLUSIONS/SIGNIFICANCE By virtue of a recent finding of another Tectonin protein, leukolectin, in the human leukocyte, and our structure-function analysis of the hypothetical hTectonin, we propose that Tectonin domains of proteins could play a vital role in innate immune defense, and that this function has been conserved over several hundred million years, from invertebrates to vertebrates. Furthermore, the approach we have used could be employed in unraveling the characteristics and functions of other hypothetical proteins in the human proteome.
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Affiliation(s)
- Diana Hooi Ping Low
- Computational and Systems Biology, Singapore-MIT Alliance, Singapore, Singapore
- Department of Biological Sciences, National University of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Zhiwei Ang
- Department of Biological Sciences, National University of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Quan Yuan
- Department of Biological Sciences, National University of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Vladimir Frecer
- Laboratory of Molecular Biostructural and Nanomaterial Modeling, AREA Science Park, Trieste, Italy
- Cancer Research Institute, Slovak Academy of Sciences, Bratislava, Slovakia
| | - Bow Ho
- Department of Microbiology, National University of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Jianzhu Chen
- Computational and Systems Biology, Singapore-MIT Alliance, Singapore, Singapore
- Koch Institute for Integrative Cancer Research and Department of Biology, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | - Jeak Ling Ding
- Computational and Systems Biology, Singapore-MIT Alliance, Singapore, Singapore
- Department of Biological Sciences, National University of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore
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Dong Y, Dimopoulos G. Anopheles fibrinogen-related proteins provide expanded pattern recognition capacity against bacteria and malaria parasites. J Biol Chem 2009; 284:9835-44. [PMID: 19193639 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m807084200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 145] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
The fibrinogen-related protein family (FREP, also known as FBN) is an evolutionarily conserved immune gene family found in mammals and invertebrates. It is the largest pattern recognition receptor gene family in Anopheles gambiae, with as many as 59 putative members, while the Drosophila melanogaster genome has only 14 known FREP members. Our sequence and phylogenetic analysis suggest that this remarkable gene expansion in the mosquito is the result of tandem duplication of the fibrinogen domain. We found that the majority of the FREP genes displayed immune-responsive transcription after challenge with bacteria, fungi, or Plasmodium, and these expression patterns correlated strongly with gene phylogeny and chromosomal location. Using RNAi-mediated gene-silencing assays, we further demonstrated that some FREP members are essential factors of the mosquito innate immune system that are required for maintaining immune homeostasis, and members of this family have complementary and synergistic functions. One of the most potent anti-Plasmodium FREP proteins, FBN9, was found to interact with both Gram-negative and Gram-positive bacteria and strongly co-localized with both rodent and human malaria parasites in the mosquito midgut epithelium, suggesting that its defensive activity involves direct interaction with the pathogen. Interestingly, FBN9 formed dimers that bound to the bacterial surfaces with different affinities. Our findings indicate that the A. gambiae FREP gene family plays a central role in the mosquito innate immune system and provides an expanded pattern recognition and anti-microbial defense repertoire.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuemei Dong
- W. Harry Feinstone Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Bloomberg School of Public Health, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Maryland 21205, USA
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Schulenburg H, Hoeppner MP, Weiner J, Bornberg-Bauer E. Specificity of the innate immune system and diversity of C-type lectin domain (CTLD) proteins in the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans. Immunobiology 2008; 213:237-50. [PMID: 18406370 DOI: 10.1016/j.imbio.2007.12.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 147] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/30/2007] [Revised: 11/25/2007] [Accepted: 12/10/2007] [Indexed: 01/30/2023]
Abstract
The nematode Caenorhabditis elegans has become an important model for the study of innate immunity. Its immune system is based on several signaling cascades, including a Toll-like receptor, three mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPK), one transforming growth factor-beta (TGF-beta), the insulin-like receptor (ILR), and the programmed cell death (PCD) pathway. Furthermore, it also involves C-type lectin domain- (CTLD) containing proteins as well as several classes of antimicrobial effectors such as lysozymes. Almost all components of the nematode immune system have homologs in other organisms, including humans, and are therefore likely of ancient evolutionary origin. At the same time, most of them are part of a general stress response, suggesting that they only provide unspecific defense. In the current article, we re-evaluate this suggestion and explore the level of specificity in C. elegans innate immunity, i.e. the nematode's ability to mount a distinct defense response towards different pathogens. We draw particular attention to the CTLD proteins, which are abundant in the nematode genome (278 genes) and many of which show a pathogen-specific response during infection. Specificity may also be achieved through the differential activation of antimicrobial genes, distinct functions of the immunity signaling cascades as well as signal integration across pathways. Taken together, our evaluation reveals high potential for immune specificity in C. elegans that may enhance the nematode's ability to fight off pathogens.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hinrich Schulenburg
- Department of Animal Evolutionary Ecology, Zoological Institute, University of Tuebingen, Auf der Morgenstelle 28, 72076 Tuebingen, Germany.
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Le Saux A, Ng PML, Koh JJY, Low DHP, Leong GEL, Ho B, Ding JL. The macromolecular assembly of pathogen-recognition receptors is impelled by serine proteases, via their complement control protein modules. J Mol Biol 2008; 377:902-13. [PMID: 18279891 DOI: 10.1016/j.jmb.2008.01.045] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/18/2007] [Revised: 01/11/2008] [Accepted: 01/16/2008] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Although the innate immune response is triggered by the formation of a stable assembly of pathogen-recognition receptors (PRRs) onto the pathogens, the driving force that enables this PRR-PRR interaction is unknown. Here, we show that serine proteases, which are activated during infection, participate in associating with the PRRs. Inhibition of serine proteases gravely impairs the PRR assembly. Using yeast two-hybrid and pull-down methods, we found that two serine proteases in the horseshoe crab Carcinoscorpius rotundicauda are able to bind to the following three core members of PRRs: galactose-binding protein, Carcinolectin-5 and C-reactive protein. These two serine proteases are (1) Factor C, which activates the coagulation pathway, and (2) C2/Bf, a protein from the complement pathway. By systematic molecular dissection, we show that these serine proteases interact with the core "pathogen-recognition complex" via their complement control protein modules.
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Affiliation(s)
- Agnès Le Saux
- Department of Biological Sciences, National University of Singapore, 14 Science Drive 4, Singapore 117543, Singapore
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Ng PML, Le Saux A, Lee CM, Tan NS, Lu J, Thiel S, Ho B, Ding JL. C-reactive protein collaborates with plasma lectins to boost immune response against bacteria. EMBO J 2007; 26:3431-40. [PMID: 17581635 PMCID: PMC1933394 DOI: 10.1038/sj.emboj.7601762] [Citation(s) in RCA: 90] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/23/2006] [Accepted: 05/24/2007] [Indexed: 01/15/2023] Open
Abstract
Although human C-reactive protein (CRP) becomes upregulated during septicemia, its role remains unclear, since purified CRP showed no binding to many common pathogens. Contrary to previous findings, we show that purified human CRP (hCRP) binds to Salmonella enterica, and that binding is enhanced in the presence of plasma factors. In the horseshoe crab, Carcinoscorpius rotundicauda, CRP is a major hemolymph protein. Incubation of hemolymph with a range of bacteria resulted in CRP binding to all the bacteria tested. Lipopolysaccharide-affinity chromatography of the hemolymph co-purified CRP, galactose-binding protein (GBP) and carcinolectin-5 (CL5). Yeast two-hybrid and pull-down assays suggested that these pattern recognition receptors (PRRs) form pathogen recognition complexes. We show the conservation of PRR crosstalk in humans, whereby hCRP interacts with ficolin (CL5 homologue). This interaction stabilizes CRP binding to bacteria and activates the lectin-mediated complement pathway. We propose that CRP does not act alone but collaborates with other plasma PRRs to form stable pathogen recognition complexes when targeting a wide range of bacteria for destruction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Patricia M L Ng
- Department of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Science, National University of Singapore, Singapore
| | - Agnès Le Saux
- Department of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Science, National University of Singapore, Singapore
| | - Chia M Lee
- Department of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Science, National University of Singapore, Singapore
| | - Nguan S Tan
- School of Biological Sciences, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore
| | - Jinhua Lu
- Department of Microbiology, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, Singapore
| | - Steffen Thiel
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Immunology, Wilhelm Meyers Allé, Bartholin Building, University of Aarhus, Aarhus, Denmark
| | - Bow Ho
- Department of Microbiology, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, Singapore
- These authors contributed equally to this work
| | - Jeak L Ding
- Department of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Science, National University of Singapore, Singapore
- These authors contributed equally to this work
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Rich RL, Myszka DG. Survey of the year 2006 commercial optical biosensor literature. J Mol Recognit 2007; 20:300-66. [DOI: 10.1002/jmr.862] [Citation(s) in RCA: 97] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
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