Mechanism of membrane redistribution of protein kinase C by its ATP-competitive inhibitors

PRKCB/protein kinase C, beta and the mitochondrial axis as key regulators of autophagy

Autophagy is the major intracellular system of degradation, and it plays an essential role in various biological events. Recent observations indicate that autophagy is modulated in response to the energy status of the mitochondrial compartment. However, the exact signaling mechanism that controls autophagy under these conditions remains unclear. In this study, we report that the activation of protein kinase C β (PRKCB), a member of the classical PRKCs, negatively modulates the mitochondrial energy status and inhibits autophagy. Furthermore, cells treated with a pharmacological PRKCB inhibitor, and prkcb knockout MEFs showed an increase in autophagy both in vitro and in vivo, as well as an increased mitochondrial membrane potential (Ψm), suggesting a strong involvement of mitochondrial energy in the modulation of the autophagy machinery. Finally, we show that factors that increase the Ψm oppose the PRKCB-dependent inhibition of autophagy. Altogether, these data underscore the importance of PRKCB in the regulation of autophagy; moreover, the finding that a pharmacological modulation of the Ψm modifies autophagy levels may be useful in fighting pathologies (including various types of cancer and neurodegenerative disorders) that are characterized by reduced levels of autophagy.

Autophosphorylation of the C2 domain inhibits translocation of the novel protein kinase C (nPKC) Apl II

Protein kinase Cs (PKCs) are critical signaling molecules controlled by complex regulatory pathways. Herein, we describe an important regulatory role for C2 domain phosphorylation. Novel PKCs (nPKCs) contain an N-terminal C2 domain that cannot bind to calcium. Previously, we described an autophosphorylation site in the Aplysia novel PKC Apl II that increased the binding of the C2 domain to lipids. In this study, we show that the function of this phosphorylation is to inhibit PKC translocation. Indeed, a phosphomimetic serine-glutamic acid mutation reduced translocation of PKC Apl II while blocking phosphorylation with a serine-alanine mutation enhanced translocation and led to the persistence of the kinase at the membrane longer after the end of the stimulation. Consistent with a role for autophosphorylation in regulating kinase translocation, inhibiting PKC activity using bisindolymaleimide 1 increased physiological translocation of PKC Apl II, whereas inhibiting phosphatase activity using calyculin A inhibited physiological translocation of PKC Apl II in neurons. Our results suggest a major role for autophosphorylation-dependent regulation of translocation.

Regulation of H(2)O(2)-induced necrosis by PKC and AMP-activated kinase signaling in primary cultured hepatocytes

Recent studies have suggested that, in certain cases, necrosis, like apoptosis, may be programmed, involving the activation and inhibition of many signaling pathways. In this study, we examined whether necrosis induced by H(2)O(2) is regulated by signaling pathways in primary hepatocytes. A detailed time course revealed that H(2)O(2) treated to hepatocytes is consumed within minutes, but hepatocytes undergo necrosis several hours later. Thus, H(2)O(2) treatment induces a "lag phase" where signaling changes occur, including PKC activation, Akt (PKB) downregulation, activation of JNK, and downregulation of AMP-activated kinase (AMPK). Investigation of various inhibitors demonstrated that PKC inhibitors were effective in reducing necrosis caused by H(2)O(2) (~80%). PKC inhibitor treatment decreased PKC activity but, surprisingly, also upregulated Akt and AMPK, suggesting that various PKC isoforms negatively regulate Akt and AMPK. Akt did not appear to play a significant role in H(2)O(2)-induced necrosis, since PKC inhibitor treatment protected hepatocytes from H(2)O(2) even when Akt was inhibited. On the other hand, compound C, a selective AMPK inhibitor, abrogated the protective effect of PKC inhibitors against necrosis induced by H(2)O(2). Furthermore, AMPK activators protected against H(2)O(2)-induced necrosis, suggesting that much of the protective effect of PKC inhibition was mediated through the upregulation of AMPK. Work with PKC inhibitors suggested that atypical PKC downregulates AMPK in response to H(2)O(2). Knockdown of PKC-alpha using antisense oligonucleotides also slightly protected (~22%) against H(2)O(2). Taken together, our data demonstrate that the modulation of signaling pathways involving PKC and AMPK can alter H(2)O(2)-induced necrosis, suggesting that a signaling "program" is important in mediating H(2)O(2)-induced necrosis in primary hepatocytes.

Differential recruitment of PKC isoforms in HeLa cells during redox stress

The protein kinase C (PKC) family is a major transducer of several intracellular pathways. In confirmation of this important role, PKCs exhibit high molecular heterogeneity, because they occur in at least 10 different isoforms differing in biochemical properties and sensitivity to activators. In this report we focused on the ability of different redox agents to induce modification of intracellular distribution of specific PKC isoforms in HeLa cells. To this end we utilized a panel of green fluorescent protein (GFP) chimeras and a high-speed digital imaging system. We observed a remarkable complexity of PKC signalling patterns occurring during redox stress with marked differences among PKC isoforms also belonging to the same subgroup. Moreover our results suggest that modifications of the intracellular redox state can modulate the responsiveness of specific PKC isoforms and, in turn, change the sensitivity of the different isoforms to cell stimulation.