1
|
Lee D, Hong JH. Ca 2+ Signaling as the Untact Mode during Signaling in Metastatic Breast Cancer. Cancers (Basel) 2021; 13:1473. [PMID: 33806911 PMCID: PMC8004807 DOI: 10.3390/cancers13061473] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2021] [Revised: 03/21/2021] [Accepted: 03/22/2021] [Indexed: 01/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Metastatic features of breast cancer in the brain are considered a common pathology in female patients with late-stage breast cancer. Ca2+ signaling and the overexpression pattern of Ca2+ channels have been regarded as oncogenic markers of breast cancer. In other words, breast tumor development can be mediated by inhibiting Ca2+ channels. Although the therapeutic potential of inhibiting Ca2+ channels against breast cancer has been demonstrated, the relationship between breast cancer metastasis and Ca2+ channels is not yet understood. Thus, we focused on the metastatic features of breast cancer and summarized the basic mechanisms of Ca2+-related proteins and channels during the stages of metastatic breast cancer by evaluating Ca2+ signaling. In particular, we highlighted the metastasis of breast tumors to the brain. Thus, modulating Ca2+ channels with Ca2+ channel inhibitors and combined applications will advance treatment strategies for breast cancer metastasis to the brain.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | - Jeong Hee Hong
- Department of Health Sciences and Technology, Lee Gil Ya Cancer and Diabetes Institute, GAIHST, Gachon University, 155 Getbeolro, Yeonsu-gu, Incheon 21999, Korea;
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Bozelli JC, Epand RM. Role of membrane shape in regulating the phosphatidylinositol cycle at contact sites. Chem Phys Lipids 2019; 221:24-29. [DOI: 10.1016/j.chemphyslip.2019.03.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2018] [Revised: 02/25/2019] [Accepted: 03/01/2019] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
|
3
|
E-syt1 Re-arranges STIM1 Clusters to Stabilize Ring-shaped ER-PM Contact Sites and Accelerate Ca 2+ Store Replenishment. Sci Rep 2019; 9:3975. [PMID: 30850711 PMCID: PMC6408583 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-019-40331-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/14/2018] [Accepted: 01/31/2019] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
In many non-excitable cells, the depletion of endoplasmic reticulum (ER) Ca2+ stores leads to the dynamic formation of membrane contact sites (MCSs) between the ER and the plasma membrane (PM), which activates the store-operated Ca2+ entry (SOCE) to refill the ER store. Two different Ca2+-sensitive proteins, STIM1 and extended synaptotagmin-1 (E-syt1), are activated during this process. Due to the lack of live cell super-resolution imaging, how MCSs are dynamically regulated by STIM1 and E-syt1 coordinately during ER Ca2+ store depletion and replenishment remain unknown. With home-built super-resolution microscopes that provide superior axial and lateral resolution in live cells, we revealed that extracellular Ca2+ influx via SOCE activated E-syt1s to move towards the PM by ~12 nm. Unexpectedly, activated E-syt1s did not constitute the MCSs per se, but re-arranged neighboring ER structures into ring-shaped MCSs (230~280 nm in diameter) enclosing E-syt1 puncta, which helped to stabilize MCSs and accelerate local ER Ca2+ replenishment. Overall, we have demonstrated different roles of STIM1 and E-syt1 in MCS formation regulation, SOCE activation and ER Ca2+ store replenishment.
Collapse
|
4
|
Wang P, Hawkins TJ, Hussey PJ. Connecting membranes to the actin cytoskeleton. CURRENT OPINION IN PLANT BIOLOGY 2017; 40:71-76. [PMID: 28779654 DOI: 10.1016/j.pbi.2017.07.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/28/2017] [Accepted: 07/13/2017] [Indexed: 05/10/2023]
Abstract
In plants, the actin cytoskeleton plays a major role in organelle movement, cargo transport, maintaining cell polarity and controlling the morphogenesis of endomembrane systems. All of these events require a direct connection between membrane structures and the cytoskeleton. Our knowledge in this field has been greatly advanced by a few recent discoveries including the identification of the plant specific NETWORKED family of proteins, which can mediate such linkages. Other proteins that are known to regulate actin nucleation and polymerization are also likely to be involved, but many key questions still remain unanswered. In this paper, we will focus on recent research on the interfaces between the actin cytoskeleton and membranes of the endoplasmic reticulum, the vacuole and autophagosomes.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Pengwei Wang
- Department of Biosciences, Durham University, South Road, Durham DH1 3LE, UK; Key Laboratory of Horticultural Plant Biology (Ministry of Education), College of Horticulture and Forestry Sciences, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan 430070, Hubei Province, PR China
| | - Tim J Hawkins
- Department of Biosciences, Durham University, South Road, Durham DH1 3LE, UK
| | - Patrick J Hussey
- Department of Biosciences, Durham University, South Road, Durham DH1 3LE, UK.
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Hsieh TS, Chen YJ, Chang CL, Lee WR, Liou J. Cortical actin contributes to spatial organization of ER-PM junctions. Mol Biol Cell 2017; 28:3171-3180. [PMID: 28954864 PMCID: PMC5687020 DOI: 10.1091/mbc.e17-06-0377] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/14/2017] [Revised: 09/18/2017] [Accepted: 09/20/2017] [Indexed: 01/16/2023] Open
Abstract
Endoplasmic reticulum-plasma membrane (ER-PM) junctions mediate crucial activities ranging from Ca2+ signaling to lipid metabolism. Spatial organization of ER-PM junctions may modulate the extent and location of these cellular activities. However, the morphology and distribution of ER-PM junctions are not well characterized. Using photoactivated localization microscopy, we reveal that the contact area of single ER-PM junctions is mainly oblong with the dimensions of ∼120 nm × ∼80 nm in HeLa cells. Using total internal reflection fluorescence microscopy and structure illumination microscopy, we show that cortical actin contributes to spatial distribution and stability of ER-PM junctions. Further functional assays suggest that intact F-actin architecture is required for phosphatidylinositol 4,5-bisphosphate homeostasis mediated by Nir2 at ER-PM junctions. Together, our study provides quantitative information on spatial organization of ER-PM junctions that is in part regulated by F-actin. We envision that functions of ER-PM junctions can be differentially regulated through dynamic actin remodeling during cellular processes.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ting-Sung Hsieh
- Department of Physiology, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX 75390
| | - Yu-Ju Chen
- Department of Physiology, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX 75390
| | - Chi-Lun Chang
- Department of Physiology, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX 75390
| | - Wan-Ru Lee
- Department of Physiology, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX 75390
| | - Jen Liou
- Department of Physiology, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX 75390
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Wang P, Hawes C, Hussey PJ. Plant Endoplasmic Reticulum-Plasma Membrane Contact Sites. TRENDS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2017; 22:289-297. [PMID: 27955928 DOI: 10.1016/j.tplants.2016.11.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/03/2016] [Revised: 11/05/2016] [Accepted: 11/10/2016] [Indexed: 05/08/2023]
Abstract
The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) acts as a superhighway with multiple sideroads that connects the different membrane compartments including the ER to the plasma membrane (PM). ER-PM contact sites (EPCSs) are a common feature in eukaryotic organisms, but have not been studied well in plants owing to the lack of molecular markers and to the difficulty in resolving the EPCS structure using conventional microscopy. Recently, however, plant protein complexes required for linking the ER and PM have been identified. This is a further step towards understanding the structure and function of plant EPCSs. We highlight some recent studies in this field and suggest several hypotheses that relate to the possible function of EPCSs in plants.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Pengwei Wang
- Department of Biosciences, Durham University, South Road, Durham DH1 3LE, UK
| | - Chris Hawes
- Department of Biological and Medical Sciences, Oxford Brookes University, Oxford OX3 0BP, UK
| | - Patrick J Hussey
- Department of Biosciences, Durham University, South Road, Durham DH1 3LE, UK.
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Wang P, Richardson C, Hawkins TJ, Sparkes I, Hawes C, Hussey PJ. Plant VAP27 proteins: domain characterization, intracellular localization and role in plant development. THE NEW PHYTOLOGIST 2016; 210:1311-26. [PMID: 27159525 DOI: 10.1111/nph.13857] [Citation(s) in RCA: 85] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/24/2015] [Accepted: 12/14/2015] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is connected to the plasma membrane (PM) through the plant-specific NETWORKED protein, NET3C, and phylogenetically conserved vesicle-associated membrane protein-associated proteins (VAPs). Ten VAP homologues (VAP27-1 to 27-10) can be identified in the Arabidopsis genome and can be divided into three clades. Representative members from each clade were tagged with fluorescent protein and expressed in Nicotiana benthamiana. Proteins from clades I and III localized to the ER as well as to ER/PM contact sites (EPCSs), whereas proteins from clade II were found only at the PM. Some of the VAP27-labelled EPCSs localized to plasmodesmata, and we show that the mobility of VAP27 at EPCSs is influenced by the cell wall. EPCSs closely associate with the cytoskeleton, but their structure is unaffected when the cytoskeleton is removed. VAP27-labelled EPCSs are found in most cell types in Arabidopsis, with the exception of cells in early trichome development. Arabidopsis plants expressing VAP27-GFP fusions exhibit pleiotropic phenotypes, including defects in root hair morphogenesis. A similar effect is also observed in plants expressing VAP27 RNAi. Taken together, these data indicate that VAP27 proteins used at EPCSs are essential for normal ER-cytoskeleton interaction and for plant development.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Pengwei Wang
- School of Biological and Biomedical Sciences, Durham University, South Road, Durham, DH1 3LE, UK
| | - Christine Richardson
- School of Biological and Biomedical Sciences, Durham University, South Road, Durham, DH1 3LE, UK
| | - Timothy J Hawkins
- School of Biological and Biomedical Sciences, Durham University, South Road, Durham, DH1 3LE, UK
| | - Imogen Sparkes
- College of Life and Environmental Sciences, University of Exeter, Stocker Road, Exeter, EX4 4QD, UK
| | - Chris Hawes
- Department of Biological and Biomedical Sciences, Oxford Brookes University, Gipsy Lane, Oxford, OX3 0BP, UK
| | - Patrick J Hussey
- School of Biological and Biomedical Sciences, Durham University, South Road, Durham, DH1 3LE, UK
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Okeke E, Dingsdale H, Parker T, Voronina S, Tepikin AV. Endoplasmic reticulum-plasma membrane junctions: structure, function and dynamics. J Physiol 2016; 594:2837-47. [PMID: 26939537 DOI: 10.1113/jp271142] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/01/2015] [Accepted: 02/13/2016] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Endoplasmic reticulum (ER)-plasma membrane (PM) junctions are contact sites between the ER and the PM; the distance between the two organelles in the junctions is below 40 nm and the membranes are connected by protein tethers. A number of molecular tools and technical approaches have been recently developed to visualise, modify and characterise properties of ER-PM junctions. The junctions serve as the platforms for lipid exchange between the organelles and for cell signalling, notably Ca(2+) and cAMP signalling. Vice versa, signalling events regulate the development and properties of the junctions. Two Ca(2+) -dependent mechanisms of de novo formation of ER-PM junctions have been recently described and characterised. The junction-forming proteins and lipids are currently the focus of vigorous investigation. Junctions can be relatively short-lived and simple structures, forming and dissolving on the time scale of a few minutes. However, complex, sophisticated and multifunctional ER-PM junctions, capable of attracting numerous protein residents and other cellular organelles, have been described in some cell types. The road from simplicity to complexity, i.e. the transformation from simple 'nascent' ER-PM junctions to advanced stable multiorganellar complexes, is likely to become an attractive research avenue for current and future junctologists. Another area of considerable research interest is the downstream cellular processes that can be activated by specific local signalling events in the ER-PM junctions. Studies of the cell physiology and indeed pathophysiology of ER-PM junctions have already produced some surprising discoveries, likely to expand with advances in our understanding of these remarkable organellar contact sites.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Emmanuel Okeke
- Department of Cellular and Molecular Physiology, Institute of Translational Medicine, University of Liverpool, Crown Street, Liverpool, L69 3BX, UK
| | - Hayley Dingsdale
- Department of Cellular and Molecular Physiology, Institute of Translational Medicine, University of Liverpool, Crown Street, Liverpool, L69 3BX, UK
| | - Tony Parker
- Department of Cellular and Molecular Physiology, Institute of Translational Medicine, University of Liverpool, Crown Street, Liverpool, L69 3BX, UK
| | - Svetlana Voronina
- Department of Cellular and Molecular Physiology, Institute of Translational Medicine, University of Liverpool, Crown Street, Liverpool, L69 3BX, UK
| | - Alexei V Tepikin
- Department of Cellular and Molecular Physiology, Institute of Translational Medicine, University of Liverpool, Crown Street, Liverpool, L69 3BX, UK
| |
Collapse
|
9
|
Okeke E, Parker T, Dingsdale H, Concannon M, Awais M, Voronina S, Molgó J, Begg M, Metcalf D, Knight AE, Sutton R, Haynes L, Tepikin AV. Epithelial-mesenchymal transition, IP3 receptors and ER-PM junctions: translocation of Ca2+ signalling complexes and regulation of migration. Biochem J 2016; 473:757-67. [PMID: 26759379 PMCID: PMC4785603 DOI: 10.1042/bj20150364] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/24/2015] [Revised: 12/21/2015] [Accepted: 01/12/2016] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Disconnection of a cell from its epithelial neighbours and the formation of a mesenchymal phenotype are associated with profound changes in the distribution of cellular components and the formation of new cellular polarity. We observed a dramatic redistribution of inositol trisphosphate receptors (IP3Rs) and stromal interaction molecule 1 (STIM1)-competent endoplasmic reticulum-plasma membrane junctions (ER-PM junctions) when pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC) cells disconnect from their neighbours and undergo individual migration. In cellular monolayers IP3Rs are juxtaposed with tight junctions. When individual cells migrate away from their neighbours IP3Rs preferentially accumulate at the leading edge where they surround focal adhesions. Uncaging of inositol trisphosphate (IP3) resulted in prominent accumulation of paxillin in focal adhesions, highlighting important functional implications of the observed novel structural relationships. ER-PM junctions and STIM1 proteins also migrate to the leading edge and position closely behind the IP3Rs, creating a stratified distribution of Ca(2+) signalling complexes in this region. Importantly, migration of PDAC cells was strongly suppressed by selective inhibition of IP3Rs and store-operated Ca(2+) entry (SOCE), indicating that these mechanisms are functionally required for migration.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Emmanuel Okeke
- Department of Cellular and Molecular Physiology, University of Liverpool, Crown Street, Liverpool L69 3BX, U.K
| | - Tony Parker
- Department of Cellular and Molecular Physiology, University of Liverpool, Crown Street, Liverpool L69 3BX, U.K
| | - Hayley Dingsdale
- Department of Cellular and Molecular Physiology, University of Liverpool, Crown Street, Liverpool L69 3BX, U.K
| | - Matthew Concannon
- Department of Cellular and Molecular Physiology, University of Liverpool, Crown Street, Liverpool L69 3BX, U.K
| | - Muhammad Awais
- NIHR Liverpool Pancreas Biomedical Research Unit, University of Liverpool, Crown Street, Liverpool L69 3BX, U.K
| | - Svetlana Voronina
- Department of Cellular and Molecular Physiology, University of Liverpool, Crown Street, Liverpool L69 3BX, U.K
| | - Jordi Molgó
- CEA, Institut de Biologie et Technologies de Saclay (iBiTec-S), Service d'Ingénierie Moléculaire des Protéines (SIMOPRO), bâtiment 152, 91191 Gif-sur-Yvette Cedex, France Institut des Neurosciences Paris-Saclay, UMR 9197, CNRS/Université Paris-Sud, CNRS, 91190-Gif sur Yvette Cedex, France
| | - Malcolm Begg
- Respiratory Therapy Area Unit, Medicines Research Centre, GlaxoSmithKline, Stevenage SG1 2NY, England, U.K
| | - Daniel Metcalf
- Biotechnology Group, National Physical Laboratory, Hampton Road, Teddington TW11 0LW, U.K
| | - Alex E Knight
- Biotechnology Group, National Physical Laboratory, Hampton Road, Teddington TW11 0LW, U.K
| | - Robert Sutton
- NIHR Liverpool Pancreas Biomedical Research Unit, University of Liverpool, Crown Street, Liverpool L69 3BX, U.K
| | - Lee Haynes
- Department of Cellular and Molecular Physiology, University of Liverpool, Crown Street, Liverpool L69 3BX, U.K
| | - Alexei V Tepikin
- Department of Cellular and Molecular Physiology, University of Liverpool, Crown Street, Liverpool L69 3BX, U.K.
| |
Collapse
|
10
|
Stock C, Schwab A. Ion channels and transporters in metastasis. BIOCHIMICA ET BIOPHYSICA ACTA-BIOMEMBRANES 2014; 1848:2638-46. [PMID: 25445667 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbamem.2014.11.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/31/2014] [Revised: 11/03/2014] [Accepted: 11/07/2014] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
An elaborate interplay between ion channels and transporters, components of the cytoskeleton, adhesion molecules, and signaling cascades provides the basis for each major step of the metastatic cascade. Ion channels and transporters contribute to cell motility by letting through or transporting ions essential for local Ca2+, pH and--in cooperation with water permeable aquaporins--volume homeostasis. Moreover, in addition to the actual ion transport they, or their auxiliary subunits, can display non-conducting activities. They can exert kinase activity in order to phosphorylate cytoskeletal constituents or their associates. They can become part of signaling processes by permeating Ca2+, by generating local pH-nanodomains or by being final downstream effectors. A number of channels and transporters are found at focal adhesions, interacting directly or indirectly with proteins of the extracellular matrix, with integrins or with components of the cytoskeleton. We also include the role of aquaporins in cell motility. They drive the outgrowth of lamellipodia/invadopodia or control the number of β1 integrins in the plasma membrane. The multitude of interacting ion channels and transporters (called transportome) including the associated signaling events holds great potential as therapeutic target(s) for anticancer agents that are aimed at preventing metastasis. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled: Membrane channels and transporters in cancers.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Christian Stock
- Department of Gastroenterology, Hannover Medical School, Hannover, Germany.
| | - Albrecht Schwab
- Institute of Physiology II, University of Münster, Robert-Koch-Str. 27b, D-48149 Münster, Germany
| |
Collapse
|
11
|
Voronina S, Okeke E, Parker T, Tepikin A. How to win ATP and influence Ca(2+) signaling. Cell Calcium 2014; 55:131-8. [PMID: 24613709 DOI: 10.1016/j.ceca.2014.02.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/03/2014] [Revised: 02/10/2014] [Accepted: 02/11/2014] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
This brief review discusses recent advances in studies of mitochondrial Ca(2+) signaling and considers how the relationships between mitochondria and Ca(2+) responses are shaped in secretory epithelial cells. Perhaps the more precise title of this review could have been "How to win ATP and influence Ca(2+) signaling in secretory epithelium with emphasis on exocrine secretory cells and specific focus on pancreatic acinar cells". But "brevity is a virtue" and the authors hope that many of the mechanisms discussed are general and applicable to other tissues and cell types. Among these mechanisms are mitochondrial regulation of Ca(2+) entry and the role of mitochondria in the formation of localized Ca(2+) responses. The roles of Ca(2+) signaling in the physiological adjustment of bioenergetics and in mitochondrial damage are also briefly discussed.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Svetlana Voronina
- Department of Cellular and Molecular Physiology, The Physiological Laboratory, Institute of Translational Medicine, The University of Liverpool, Crown Street, Liverpool L69 3BX, UK
| | - Emmanuel Okeke
- Department of Cellular and Molecular Physiology, The Physiological Laboratory, Institute of Translational Medicine, The University of Liverpool, Crown Street, Liverpool L69 3BX, UK
| | - Tony Parker
- Department of Cellular and Molecular Physiology, The Physiological Laboratory, Institute of Translational Medicine, The University of Liverpool, Crown Street, Liverpool L69 3BX, UK
| | - Alexei Tepikin
- Department of Cellular and Molecular Physiology, The Physiological Laboratory, Institute of Translational Medicine, The University of Liverpool, Crown Street, Liverpool L69 3BX, UK.
| |
Collapse
|
12
|
Schwab A, Stock C. Ion channels and transporters in tumour cell migration and invasion. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 2014; 369:20130102. [PMID: 24493750 DOI: 10.1098/rstb.2013.0102] [Citation(s) in RCA: 101] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Cell migration is a central component of the metastatic cascade requiring a concerted action of ion channels and transporters (migration-associated transportome), cytoskeletal elements and signalling cascades. Ion transport proteins and aquaporins contribute to tumour cell migration and invasion among other things by inducing local volume changes and/or by modulating Ca(2+) and H(+) signalling. Targeting cell migration therapeutically bears great clinical potential, because it is a prerequisite for metastasis. Ion transport proteins appear to be attractive candidate target proteins for this purpose because they are easily accessible as membrane proteins and often overexpressed or activated in cancer. Importantly, a number of clinically widely used drugs are available whose anticipated efficacy as anti-tumour drugs, however, has now only begun to be evaluated.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Albrecht Schwab
- Institut für Physiologie II, Westfälische Wilhelms-Universität Münster, , Robert-Koch-Strasse 27b, Münster 48149, Germany
| | | |
Collapse
|