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Sibarov DA, Tsytsarev V, Volnova A, Vaganova AN, Alves J, Rojas L, Sanabria P, Ignashchenkova A, Savage ED, Inyushin M. Arc protein, a remnant of ancient retrovirus, forms virus-like particles, which are abundantly generated by neurons during epileptic seizures, and affects epileptic susceptibility in rodent models. Front Neurol 2023; 14:1201104. [PMID: 37483450 PMCID: PMC10361770 DOI: 10.3389/fneur.2023.1201104] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/06/2023] [Accepted: 06/02/2023] [Indexed: 07/25/2023] Open
Abstract
A product of the immediate early gene Arc (Activity-regulated cytoskeleton-associated protein or Arc protein) of retroviral ancestry resides in the genome of all tetrapods for millions of years and is expressed endogenously in neurons. It is a well-known protein, very important for synaptic plasticity and memory consolidation. Activity-dependent Arc expression concentrated in glutamatergic synapses affects the long-time synaptic strength of those excitatory synapses. Because it modulates excitatory-inhibitory balance in a neuronal network, the Arc gene itself was found to be related to the pathogenesis of epilepsy. General Arc knockout rodent models develop a susceptibility to epileptic seizures. Because of activity dependence, synaptic Arc protein synthesis also is affected by seizures. Interestingly, it was found that Arc protein in synapses of active neurons self-assemble in capsids of retrovirus-like particles, which can transfer genetic information between neurons, at least across neuronal synaptic boutons. Released Arc particles can be accumulated in astrocytes after seizures. It is still not known how capsid assembling and transmission timescale is affected by seizures. This scientific field is relatively novel and is experiencing swift transformation as it grapples with difficult concepts in light of evolving experimental findings. We summarize the emergent literature on the subject and also discuss the specific rodent models for studying Arc effects in epilepsy. We summarized both to clarify the possible role of Arc-related pseudo-viral particles in epileptic disorders, which may be helpful to researchers interested in this growing area of investigation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dmitry A. Sibarov
- Sechenov Institute of Evolutionary Physiology and Biochemistry of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Saint Petersburg, Russia
| | - Vassiliy Tsytsarev
- Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, United States
| | - Anna Volnova
- Institute of Translational Biomedicine, Saint Petersburg State University, Saint Petersburg, Russia
| | - Anastasia N. Vaganova
- Institute of Translational Biomedicine, Saint Petersburg State University, Saint Petersburg, Russia
| | - Janaina Alves
- School of Medicine, Universidad Central del Caribe, Bayamón, PR, United States
| | - Legier Rojas
- School of Medicine, Universidad Central del Caribe, Bayamón, PR, United States
| | - Priscila Sanabria
- School of Medicine, Universidad Central del Caribe, Bayamón, PR, United States
| | | | | | - Mikhail Inyushin
- School of Medicine, Universidad Central del Caribe, Bayamón, PR, United States
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2
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Villarreal L, Witzany G. Self-empowerment of life through RNA networks, cells and viruses. F1000Res 2023; 12:138. [PMID: 36785664 PMCID: PMC9918806 DOI: 10.12688/f1000research.130300.1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 01/20/2023] [Indexed: 01/05/2024] Open
Abstract
Our understanding of the key players in evolution and of the development of all organisms in all domains of life has been aided by current knowledge about RNA stem-loop groups, their proposed interaction motifs in an early RNA world and their regulative roles in all steps and substeps of nearly all cellular processes, such as replication, transcription, translation, repair, immunity and epigenetic marking. Cooperative evolution was enabled by promiscuous interactions between single-stranded regions in the loops of naturally forming stem-loop structures in RNAs. It was also shown that cooperative RNA stem-loops outcompete selfish ones and provide foundational self-constructive groups (ribosome, editosome, spliceosome, etc.). Self-empowerment from abiotic matter to biological behavior does not just occur at the beginning of biological evolution; it is also essential for all levels of socially interacting RNAs, cells and viruses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luis Villarreal
- Center for Virus Research, University of California, Irvine, California, USA
| | - Guenther Witzany
- Telos - Philosophische Praxis, Buermoos, Salzburg, 5111, Austria
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3
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Abstract
Our understanding of the key players in evolution and of the development of all organisms in all domains of life has been aided by current knowledge about RNA stem-loop groups, their proposed interaction motifs in an early RNA world and their regulative roles in all steps and substeps of nearly all cellular processes, such as replication, transcription, translation, repair, immunity and epigenetic marking. Cooperative evolution was enabled by promiscuous interactions between single-stranded regions in the loops of naturally forming stem-loop structures in RNAs. It was also shown that cooperative RNA stem-loops outcompete selfish ones and provide foundational self-constructive groups (ribosome, editosome, spliceosome, etc.). Self-empowerment from abiotic matter to biological behavior does not just occur at the beginning of biological evolution; it is also essential for all levels of socially interacting RNAs, cells and viruses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luis Villarreal
- Center for Virus Research, University of California, Irvine, California, USA
| | - Guenther Witzany
- Telos - Philosophische Praxis, Buermoos, Salzburg, 5111, Austria
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4
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Structures of UBA6 explain its dual specificity for ubiquitin and FAT10. Nat Commun 2022; 13:4789. [PMID: 35970836 PMCID: PMC9378703 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-022-32040-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/08/2022] [Accepted: 07/13/2022] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
The covalent modification of target proteins with ubiquitin or ubiquitin-like modifiers is initiated by E1 activating enzymes, which typically transfer a single modifier onto cognate conjugating enzymes. UBA6 is an unusual E1 since it activates two highly distinct modifiers, ubiquitin and FAT10. Here, we report crystal structures of UBA6 in complex with either ATP or FAT10. In the UBA6-FAT10 complex, the C-terminal domain of FAT10 binds to where ubiquitin resides in the UBA1-ubiquitin complex, however, a switch element ensures the alternate recruitment of either modifier. Simultaneously, the N-terminal domain of FAT10 interacts with the 3-helix bundle of UBA6. Site-directed mutagenesis identifies residues permitting the selective activation of either ubiquitin or FAT10. These results pave the way for studies investigating the activation of either modifier by UBA6 in physiological and pathophysiological settings. UBA6 is an E1 enzyme that can activate both ubiquitin and FAT10. Here, the authors employ X-ray crystallography and biochemical techniques to explain this dual specificity, and identify UBA6 variants that are selectively impaired in the activation of either ubiquitin or FAT10.
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Boldridge M, Shimabukuro J, Nakamatsu K, Won C, Jansen C, Turner H, Wang L. Characterization of the C-terminal tail of the Arc protein. PLoS One 2020; 15:e0239870. [PMID: 32991626 PMCID: PMC7523963 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0239870] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/18/2020] [Accepted: 09/15/2020] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
The activity-regulated cytoskeleton-associate protein Arc (or Arg3.1) is specifically linked to memory formation and a number of cognitive disorders, including Alzheimer's disease and schizophrenia. Since the discovery of Arc in 1995, extensive research has been conducted on the protein to identify its function and mechanisms of action, with solving the structure of Arc as a major goal. However, the Arc protein tends to self-oligomerize in vitro, and is difficult to crystallize. These properties have hindered efforts to obtain the structure of the full-length, whole protein Arc. As an alternative approach, we and others, have sought to solve the structures of various subdomain proteins of Arc, including the N-lobe, C-lobe, and capsid domain (N-lobe + C-lobe). In this study, we characterized the C-terminal tail of Arc using integrated bioinformatic and structural biology techniques. We compared the sequences of Arc proteins in different mammal species and found that the amino-acid composition in the C-terminal tail region has a significantly higher degree of variation rate than the rest of the protein. Structural prediction programs suggested that the C-terminal tail is structurally disordered. Chemical shift analysis based on solution NMR spectra confirmed that the C-terminal tail has a random coil (disordered) structure, and the tail starts from the residue D357. Furthermore, the NMR spectra showed that the C-terminal tail has minimum (if any) interaction with its neighboring capsid domain in Arc. This study fills gaps in our specific understanding of the structural nature and functional contributions of the Arc C-terminus.
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Affiliation(s)
- Melissa Boldridge
- Department of Natural Sciences, Hawaii Pacific University, Honolulu, Hawaii, United States of America
| | - Jody Shimabukuro
- Department of Natural Sciences, Hawaii Pacific University, Honolulu, Hawaii, United States of America
| | - Keith Nakamatsu
- Department of Natural Sciences, Windward Community College, Kaneohe, Hawaii, United States of America
| | - Christian Won
- Department of Natural Sciences, Windward Community College, Kaneohe, Hawaii, United States of America
| | - Chad Jansen
- Laboratory of Immunology and Signal Transduction, School of Natural Sciences and Mathematics, Chaminade University, Honolulu, Hawaii, United States of America
| | - Helen Turner
- Laboratory of Immunology and Signal Transduction, School of Natural Sciences and Mathematics, Chaminade University, Honolulu, Hawaii, United States of America
| | - Lei Wang
- Department of Natural Sciences, Hawaii Pacific University, Honolulu, Hawaii, United States of America
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6
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Wang F, Zhao B. UBA6 and Its Bispecific Pathways for Ubiquitin and FAT10. Int J Mol Sci 2019; 20:ijms20092250. [PMID: 31067743 PMCID: PMC6539292 DOI: 10.3390/ijms20092250] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/02/2019] [Revised: 04/26/2019] [Accepted: 04/28/2019] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Questions have been raised since the discovery of UBA6 and its significant coexistence with UBE1 in the ubiquitin–proteasome system (UPS). The facts that UBA6 has the dedicated E2 enzyme USE1 and the E1–E2 cascade can activate and transfer both ubiquitin and ubiquitin-like protein FAT10 have attracted a great deal of attention to the regulational mechanisms of the UBA6–USE1 cascade and to how FAT10 and ubiquitin differentiate with each other. This review recapitulates the latest advances in UBA6 and its bispecific UBA6–USE1 pathways for both ubiquitin and FAT10. The intricate networks of UBA6 and its interplays with ubiquitin and FAT10 are briefly reviewed, as are their individual and collective functions in diverse physiological conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fengting Wang
- Engineering Research Center of Cell and Therapeutic Antibody, Ministry of Education, and School of Pharmacy, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200240, China.
| | - Bo Zhao
- Engineering Research Center of Cell and Therapeutic Antibody, Ministry of Education, and School of Pharmacy, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200240, China.
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Shepherd JD. Arc - An endogenous neuronal retrovirus? Semin Cell Dev Biol 2017; 77:73-78. [PMID: 28941877 DOI: 10.1016/j.semcdb.2017.09.029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/11/2017] [Revised: 09/18/2017] [Accepted: 09/19/2017] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
The neuronal gene Arc is essential for long-lasting information storage in the mammalian brain and has been implicated in various neurological disorders. However, little is known about Arc's evolutionary origins. Recent studies suggest that mammalian Arc originated from a vertebrate lineage of Ty3/gypsy retrotransposons, which are also ancestral to retroviruses. In particular, Arc contains homology to the Gag polyprotein that forms the viral capsid and is essential for viral infectivity. This surprising connection raises the intriguing possibility that Arc may share molecular characteristics of retroviruses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jason D Shepherd
- Department of Neurobiology and Anatomy, The University of Utah School of Medicine, 4539 SMBB, 36 S. Wasatch Dr., Salt Lake City, UT, 84112, United States.
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Nikolaienko O, Patil S, Eriksen MS, Bramham CR. Arc protein: a flexible hub for synaptic plasticity and cognition. Semin Cell Dev Biol 2017; 77:33-42. [PMID: 28890419 DOI: 10.1016/j.semcdb.2017.09.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 113] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/13/2017] [Revised: 09/06/2017] [Accepted: 09/06/2017] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
Mammalian excitatory synapses express diverse types of synaptic plasticity. A major challenge in neuroscience is to understand how a neuron utilizes different types of plasticity to sculpt brain development, function, and behavior. Neuronal activity-induced expression of the immediate early protein, Arc, is critical for long-term potentiation and depression of synaptic transmission, homeostatic synaptic scaling, and adaptive functions such as long-term memory formation. However, the molecular basis of Arc protein function as a regulator of synaptic plasticity and cognition remains a puzzle. Recent work on the biophysical and structural properties of Arc, its protein-protein interactions and post-translational modifications have shed light on the issue. Here, we present Arc protein as a flexible, multifunctional and interactive hub. Arc interacts with specific effector proteins in neuronal compartments (dendritic spines, nuclear domains) to bidirectionally regulate synaptic strength by distinct molecular mechanisms. Arc stability, subcellular localization, and interactions are dictated by synaptic activity and post-translational modification of Arc. This functional versatility and context-dependent signaling supports a view of Arc as a highly specialized master organizer of long-term synaptic plasticity, critical for information storage and cognition.
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Affiliation(s)
- Oleksii Nikolaienko
- Department of Biomedicine and KG Jebsen Center for Neuropsychiatric Disorders, University of Bergen, Jonas Lies vei 91, N-5009, Bergen, Norway
| | - Sudarshan Patil
- Department of Biomedicine and KG Jebsen Center for Neuropsychiatric Disorders, University of Bergen, Jonas Lies vei 91, N-5009, Bergen, Norway
| | - Maria Steene Eriksen
- Department of Biomedicine and KG Jebsen Center for Neuropsychiatric Disorders, University of Bergen, Jonas Lies vei 91, N-5009, Bergen, Norway
| | - Clive R Bramham
- Department of Biomedicine and KG Jebsen Center for Neuropsychiatric Disorders, University of Bergen, Jonas Lies vei 91, N-5009, Bergen, Norway.
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9
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Piras IS, Krate J, Schrauwen I, Corneveaux JJ, Serrano GE, Sue L, Beach TG, Huentelman MJ. Whole transcriptome profiling of the human hippocampus suggests an involvement of the KIBRA rs17070145 polymorphism in differential activation of the MAPK signaling pathway. Hippocampus 2017; 27:784-793. [PMID: 28380666 DOI: 10.1002/hipo.22731] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/09/2016] [Revised: 02/26/2017] [Accepted: 03/27/2017] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
The rs17070145-T variant of the WWC1 gene, coding for the KIBRA protein, has been associated with both increased episodic memory performance and lowered risk for late onset Alzheimer's disease, although the mechanism behind this protective effect has not been completely elucidated. To achieve a better understanding of the pathways modulated by rs17070145 and its associated functional variant(s), we used laser capture microdissection (LCM) and RNA-sequencing to investigate the effect of rs17070145 genotypes on whole transcriptome expression in the human hippocampus (HP) of 22 neuropathologically normal individuals, with a specific focus on the dentate gyrus (DG) and at the pyramidal cells (PC) of CA1 and CA3 sub-regions. Differential expression analysis of RNA-seq data within the HP based on the rs17070145 genotype revealed an overexpression of genes involved in the MAPK signaling pathway, potentially driven by the T/T genotype. The most important contribution comes from genes dysregulated within the DG region. Other genes significantly dysregulated, and not involved in the MAPK pathway (Adj P < 0.01 and Fold Change > |1.00|) were: RSPO4 (HP); ARC, DUSP5, DNAJB5, EGR4, PPP1R15A, WBP11P1, EGR1, GADD45B (DG); CH25H, HSPA1A, HSPA1B, TNFSF9, and NPAS4 (PC). Several evidences suggested that the MAPK signaling pathway is linked with memory and learning processes. In non-neuronal cells, the KIBRA protein is phosphorylated by ERK1/2 (involved in the MAPK signaling) in cells as well as in vitro. Several of the other dysregulated genes are involved in memory and learning processes, as well as in Alzheimer's Disease. In conclusion, our results suggest that the effect of the WWC1 rs17070145 polymorphism on memory performance and Alzheimer's disease might be due to a differential regulation of the MAPK signaling, a key pathway involved in memory and learning processes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ignazio S Piras
- Neurogenomics Division, Translational Genomics Research Institute, Phoenix, Arizona, 85004
| | - Jonida Krate
- Neurogenomics Division, Translational Genomics Research Institute, Phoenix, Arizona, 85004
| | - Isabelle Schrauwen
- Neurogenomics Division, Translational Genomics Research Institute, Phoenix, Arizona, 85004
| | - Jason J Corneveaux
- Neurogenomics Division, Translational Genomics Research Institute, Phoenix, Arizona, 85004
| | - Geidy E Serrano
- Civin Laboratory of Neuropathology at Banner Sun Health Research Institute, Sun City, Arizona, 85351
| | - Lucia Sue
- Civin Laboratory of Neuropathology at Banner Sun Health Research Institute, Sun City, Arizona, 85351
| | - Thomas G Beach
- Civin Laboratory of Neuropathology at Banner Sun Health Research Institute, Sun City, Arizona, 85351
| | - Matthew J Huentelman
- Neurogenomics Division, Translational Genomics Research Institute, Phoenix, Arizona, 85004
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10
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Zhang Y, Pan HY, Hu XM, Cao XL, Wang J, Min ZL, Xu SQ, Xiao W, Yuan Q, Li N, Cheng J, Zhao SQ, Hong X. The role of myocardin-related transcription factor-A in Aβ25-35 induced neuron apoptosis and synapse injury. Brain Res 2016; 1648:27-34. [PMID: 27387387 DOI: 10.1016/j.brainres.2016.07.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/27/2016] [Revised: 06/19/2016] [Accepted: 07/04/2016] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Myocardin-related transcription factor-A (MRTF-A) highly expressed in brain has been demonstrated to promote neuronal survival via regulating the transcription of related target genes as a powerful co-activator of serum response factor (SRF). However, the role of MRTF-A in Alzheimer's disease (AD) is still unclear. Here, we showed that MRTF-A was significantly downregulated in cortex of the Aβ25-35-induced AD rats, which played a key role in Aβ25-35 induced cerebral neuronal degeneration in vitro. Bilateral intracerebroventricular injection of Aβ25-35 caused significantly MRTF-A expression decline in cortex of rats, along with significant neuron apoptosis and plasticity damage. In vitro, transfection of MRTF-A into primary cultured cortical neurons prevented Aβ25-35 induced neuronal apoptosis and synapses injury. And luciferase reporter assay determined that MRTF-A could bind to and enhance the transactivity of the Mcl-1 (Myeloid cell leukemia-1) and Arc (activity-regulated cytoskeletal-associated protein) promoters by activating the key CArG box element. These data demonstrated that the decreasing of endogenous MRTF-A expression might contribute to the development of AD, whereas the upregulation MRTF-A in neurons could effectively reduce Aβ25-35 induced synapse injury and cell apoptosis. And the underlying mechanism might be partially due to MRTF-A-mediated the transcription and expression of Mcl-1 and Arc by triggering the CArG box.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ying Zhang
- Department of Pharmacology, Medical College of Wuhan University of Science and Technology, Wuhan 430080, PR China
| | - Hong-Yan Pan
- Tianyou Hospital Affiliated to Wuhan University of Science and Technology, Wuhan 430064, PR China
| | - Xia-Min Hu
- Department of Pharmacology, Medical College of Wuhan University of Science and Technology, Wuhan 430080, PR China.
| | - Xiao-Lu Cao
- Department of Pharmacology, Medical College of Wuhan University of Science and Technology, Wuhan 430080, PR China
| | - Jun Wang
- Department of Pharmacology, Medical College of Wuhan University of Science and Technology, Wuhan 430080, PR China
| | - Zhen-Li Min
- Department of Pharmacology, Medical College of Wuhan University of Science and Technology, Wuhan 430080, PR China
| | - Shi-Qiang Xu
- Department of Pharmacology, Medical College of Wuhan University of Science and Technology, Wuhan 430080, PR China
| | - Wan Xiao
- Department of Pharmacology, Medical College of Wuhan University of Science and Technology, Wuhan 430080, PR China
| | - Qiong Yuan
- Department of Pharmacology, Medical College of Wuhan University of Science and Technology, Wuhan 430080, PR China
| | - Na Li
- Department of Pharmacology, Medical College of Wuhan University of Science and Technology, Wuhan 430080, PR China
| | - Jing Cheng
- Department of Pharmacology, Medical College of Wuhan University of Science and Technology, Wuhan 430080, PR China
| | - Shu-Qi Zhao
- Department of Pharmacology, Medical College of Wuhan University of Science and Technology, Wuhan 430080, PR China
| | - Xing Hong
- Department of Pharmacology, Medical College of Wuhan University of Science and Technology, Wuhan 430080, PR China
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11
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Naville M, Warren IA, Haftek-Terreau Z, Chalopin D, Brunet F, Levin P, Galiana D, Volff JN. Not so bad after all: retroviruses and long terminal repeat retrotransposons as a source of new genes in vertebrates. Clin Microbiol Infect 2016; 22:312-323. [PMID: 26899828 DOI: 10.1016/j.cmi.2016.02.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/17/2015] [Revised: 02/05/2016] [Accepted: 02/06/2016] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Viruses and transposable elements, once considered as purely junk and selfish sequences, have repeatedly been used as a source of novel protein-coding genes during the evolution of most eukaryotic lineages, a phenomenon called 'molecular domestication'. This is exemplified perfectly in mammals and other vertebrates, where many genes derived from long terminal repeat (LTR) retroelements (retroviruses and LTR retrotransposons) have been identified through comparative genomics and functional analyses. In particular, genes derived from gag structural protein and envelope (env) genes, as well as from the integrase-coding and protease-coding sequences, have been identified in humans and other vertebrates. Retroelement-derived genes are involved in many important biological processes including placenta formation, cognitive functions in the brain and immunity against retroelements, as well as in cell proliferation, apoptosis and cancer. These observations support an important role of retroelement-derived genes in the evolution and diversification of the vertebrate lineage.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Naville
- Institut de Génomique Fonctionnelle de Lyon, Ecole Normale Supérieure de Lyon, CNRS UMR5242, Université Lyon 1, Lyon, France
| | - I A Warren
- Institut de Génomique Fonctionnelle de Lyon, Ecole Normale Supérieure de Lyon, CNRS UMR5242, Université Lyon 1, Lyon, France
| | - Z Haftek-Terreau
- Institut de Génomique Fonctionnelle de Lyon, Ecole Normale Supérieure de Lyon, CNRS UMR5242, Université Lyon 1, Lyon, France
| | - D Chalopin
- Institut de Génomique Fonctionnelle de Lyon, Ecole Normale Supérieure de Lyon, CNRS UMR5242, Université Lyon 1, Lyon, France; Department of Genetics, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, USA
| | - F Brunet
- Institut de Génomique Fonctionnelle de Lyon, Ecole Normale Supérieure de Lyon, CNRS UMR5242, Université Lyon 1, Lyon, France
| | - P Levin
- Institut de Génomique Fonctionnelle de Lyon, Ecole Normale Supérieure de Lyon, CNRS UMR5242, Université Lyon 1, Lyon, France
| | - D Galiana
- Institut de Génomique Fonctionnelle de Lyon, Ecole Normale Supérieure de Lyon, CNRS UMR5242, Université Lyon 1, Lyon, France
| | - J-N Volff
- Institut de Génomique Fonctionnelle de Lyon, Ecole Normale Supérieure de Lyon, CNRS UMR5242, Université Lyon 1, Lyon, France.
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