The dimerization of half-molecule fragments of transferrin

Quantifying In Situ Structural Stabilities of Human Blood Plasma Proteins Using a Novel Iodination Protein Stability Assay

Many of the diseases that plague society today are driven by a loss of protein quality. One method to quantify protein quality is to measure the protein folding stability (PFS). Here, we present a novel mass spectrometry (MS)-based approach for PFS measurement, iodination protein stability assay (IPSA). IPSA quantifies the PFS by tracking the surface-accessibility differences of tyrosine, histidine, methionine, and cysteine under denaturing conditions. Relative to current methods, IPSA increases protein coverage and granularity to track the PFS changes of a protein along its sequence. To our knowledge, this study is the first time the PFS of human serum proteins has been measured in the context of the blood serum (in situ). We show that IPSA can quantify the PFS differences between different transferrin iron-binding states in near in vivo conditions. We also show that the direction of the denaturation curve reflects the in vivo surface accessibility of the amino acid residue and reproducibly reports a residue-specific PFS. Along with IPSA, we introduce an analysis tool Chalf that provides a simple workflow to calculate the residue-specific PFS. The introduction of IPSA increases the potential to use protein structural stability as a structural quality metric in understanding the etiology and progression of human disease. Data is openly available at Chorusproject.org (project ID 1771).

Differential effect of a his tag at the N- and C-termini: functional studies with recombinant human serum transferrin

Attachment of a cleavable hexa His tag is a common strategy for the production of recombinant proteins. Production of two recombinant nonglycosylated human serum transferrins (hTF-NG), containing a factor Xa cleavage site and a hexa His tag at the carboxyl terminus, has been described [Mason et al. (2001) Prot. Exp. Purif 23, 142-150]. More recently, hTF-NG with an amino-terminal His tag and a factor Xa cleavage site has been expressed (>30 mg/L) in baby hamster kidney cells and purified from the tissue culture medium. Although it is frequently assumed that addition of a His tag has little or no effect on function, this is not always confirmed experimentally. In the present study, in vitro quantitative data clearly shows that the presence of the C-terminal His tag has an effect on the release of iron from recombinant hTF at pH 7.4 and 5.6. Measurement of the rate of release from both the N- and C-lobes is reduced 2-4-fold. These findings provide further compelling evidence that the two lobes communicate with each other and highlight the importance of the C-terminal portion of the C-terminal lobe in this interaction. In contrast to these results, we demonstrate that the presence of a His tag at the N-terminus of hTF has no effect on the rate of iron release from either lobe. In a competition experiment, both unlabeled N- and C-terminal His-tagged constructs were equally effective at inhibiting the binding of radio-iodinated diferric glycosylated hTF from a commercial source to receptors on HeLa cells as the unlabeled recombinant diferric hTF-NG control. Thus, the presence of a His tag at either the N- or C-terminus of hTF-NG has no apparent effect on the ability of these hTF species to bind to transferrin receptors.

Three-dimensional structure of mare diferric lactoferrin at 2.6 A resolution

Lactoferrin is a monomeric glycoprotein with a molecular mass of approximately 80 kDa. The three-dimensional structure of mare diferric lactoferrin (mlf) has been determined at 2.6 A resolution. The protein crystallizes in the space group P 212121with a=85.2 A, b=99.5 A, c=103.1 A with a solvent content of 55 % (v/v). The structure was solved by the molecular replacement method using human diferric lactoferrin as the model. The structure has been refined using XPLOR to a final R -factor of 0.194 for all data in the 15-2.6 A resolution range. The amino acid sequence of mlf was determined using a cDNA method. The final refined model comprises 5281 protein atoms, 2 Fe3+, 2 CO32-and 112 water molecules. The overall folding of mlf is similar to that of other proteins of the transferrin family. The protein folds into two globular lobes, N and C. The lobes are further divided into two domains, N1 and N2, and C1 and C2. The iron-binding cleft is situated between the domains in each lobe. The N lobe appears to be well ordered and is more stable than the C lobe in mlf unlike in other lactoferrins, where the C lobe is the more stable. The opening of the binding cleft in the N lobe of mlf is narrower than those in other proteins of the transferrin family. This is very unusual and is found only in mare lactoferrin. Apart from certain hydrophobic interactions at the mouth of the cleft, one salt-bridge (Lys301 . . . . . . . . Glu216) crosses between the two walls of the cleft. The two lobes are connected covalently by a three-turn alpha-helix involving residues 334-344. The N lobe displays a highly ordered structure with appreciably low temperature factors. The iron coordination is more symmetrical in the N lobe than in the C lobe. There are only 16 intermolecular hydrogen bonds in the structure of mlf.

Small-angle neutron scattering and dynamic light scattering studies of N- and C-terminal fragments of ovotransferrin

In order to rationalize the physicochemical heterogeneities between the N- and C-lobes of ovotransferrin (OTf), we have analyzed the structural characteristics of the isolated fragments corresponding to the N- and C-terminal halves of OTf (OTf/2N and OTf/2C) with and without iron by means of small-angle neutron scattering (SANS) using the contrast variation method with solvents of various D2O/H2O mixtures, and dynamic light scattering (DLS) measurements. The analyses of the internal structural characteristics from SANS data revealed that the radius of gyration (Rg) for both fragments decreased to the same extent with iron binding, and the structural distortion of OTf/2C was smaller than that of OTf/2N, decreasing with iron uptake. The DLS studies showed that the change in the diffusion coefficient induced by iron binding to OTf/2C was greater than that to OTf/2N. It was inferred that the OTf/2C molecule tends to become more compact on the whole by iron binding as compared to the OTf/2N molecule.

Three-dimensional structure of diferric bovine lactoferrin at 2.8 A resolution

The three-dimensional structure of diferric bovine lactoferrin (bLf) has been determined by X-ray crystallography in order to investigate the factors that influence iron binding and release by transferrins. The structure was solved by molecular replacement, using the coordinates of diferric human lactoferrin (hLf) as a search model, and was refined with data to 2.8 A resolution by simulated annealing (X-PLOR) and restrained least squares (TNT). The final model comprises 5310 protein atoms (residues 5 to 689), 124 carbohydrate atoms (from ten monosaccharide units, in three glycan chains), 2 Fe3+, 2 CO32- and 50 water molecules. This model gives an R-factor of 0.232 for 21440 reflections in the resolution range 30.0 to 2.8 A. The folding of the bLf molecule is essentially the same as that of hLf, but bLf differs in the extent of closure of the two domains of each lobe, and in the relative orientations of the two lobes. Differences in domain closure are attributed to amino acid changes in the interface, and differences in lobe orientations to slightly altered packing of two hydrophobic patches between the lobes. Changed interdomain interactions may explain the lesser iron affinity of bLf, compared with hLf, and two lysine residues behind the N-lobe iron site of bLf offer new insights into the "dilysine trigger" mechanism proposed for iron release by transferrins. The bLf structure is also notable for several well-defined oligosaccharide units which demonstrate the structural factors that stabilise carbohydrate structure. One glycan chain, attached to Asn545, appears to contribute to interdomain interactions and may modulate iron release from the C-lobe.

Characterization of a helix-loop-helix (EF hand) motif of silver hake parvalbumin isoform B

Parvalbumins are a class of calcium-binding proteins characterized by the presence of several helix-loop-helix (EF-hand) motifs. It is suspected that these proteins evolved via intragene duplication from a single EF-hand. Silver hake parvalbumin (SHPV) consists of three EF-type helix-loop-helix regions, two of which have the ability to bind calcium. The three helix-loop-helix motifs are designated AB, CD, and EF, respectively. In this study, native silver hake parvalbumin isoform B (SHPV-B) has been sequenced by mass spectrometry. The sequence indicates that this parvalbumin is a beta-lineage parvalbumin. SHPV-B was cleaved into two major fragments, consisting of the ABCD and EF regions of the native protein. The 33-amino acid EF fragment (residues 76-108), containing one of the calcium ion binding sites in native SHPV-B, has been isolated and studied for its structural characteristics, ability to bind divalent and trivalent cations, and for its propensity to undergo metal ion-induced self-association. The presence of Ca2+ does not induce significant secondary structure in the EF fragment. However, NMR and CD results indicate significant secondary structure promotion in the EF fragment in the presence of the higher charge-density trivalent cations. Sedimentation equilibrium analysis results show that the EF fragment exists in a monomer-dimer equilibrium when complexed with La3+.

Association of the two lobes of ovotransferrin is a prerequisite for receptor recognition. Studies with recombinant ovotransferrins

Different recombinant N-lobes of chicken ovotransferrin (oTF/2N) have been isolated from the tissue-culture medium of baby hamster kidney cells transfected with the plasmid pNUT containing the relevant DNA coding sequence. Levels of up to 40, 55 and 30 mg/1 oTF/2N were obtained for constructs defining residues 1-319, 1-332 and 1-337-(Ala)3 respectively. In addition, a full-length non-glycosylated oTF was expressed at a maximum of 80 mg/1 and a foreshortened oTF consisting of residues 1-682 was expressed at a level of 95 mg/l. These preparations were then used to produce, proteolytically, two different C-lobes (oTF/2C) comprising residues 342-686 and 342-682. The purified recombinant N-lobes (oTF/2N) are similar to the proteolytically derived half-molecule with regard to immunoreactivity and spectral properties; they show some interesting differences in thermal stability. A sequence analysis of the cDNA revealed six changes at the nucleotide level that led to six differences in the amino acid sequence compared with that reported by Jeltsch and Chambon [(1982) Eur. J. Biochem. 122, 291-295]. Electrospray mass spectrometry gives results consistent with these six changes. Interaction between the various N- and C-lobes was measured by titration calorimetry. Studies show that only those lobes that associate in solution are able to bind to the receptors on chick embryo red blood cells. These findings do not support a previous report by Oratore et al.

Metal-ion binding properties of the transferrins: a vanadium-51 NMR study

Transferrins can bind a wide range of di- and trivalent metal ions. They have a bilobal structure where each domain contains a deep cleft that binds a metal ion along with a synergistic anion. In this work, the binding of vanadate as VO2+ to the transferrins was studied by 51V quadrupolar central transition (QCT) NMR. Information about differences in the symmetry and motion of the bound metal ion was obtained from chemical shift and line width differences for serotransferrin (sTf), lactoferrin (lTf), and ovotransferrrin(oTf). The effects of pH, ionic strength, and temperature on the 51V QCT NMR spectra of the bound VO2+ cations showed that the N-lobe binding site of sTf is unique as compared to the other proteins. Properties of the quadrupolar central transition were also investigated, revealing that temperature, magnetic field strength, and NMR pulse angle all induce predictable changes on the second-order dynamic frequency shift, spectral line width, and optimal pulse angle in the 51V NMR spectra. Analysis of NMR spectra of V(V)2-oTf and V(V)2-sTf at three magnetic fields allowed an estimation of the quadrupolar coupling constants for these binding sites. This indicates that the degree of coordination symmetry in the binding sites is as follows: sTf N < sTf C < oTf N, C. Carbon-13 NMR studies revealed that VO2+ binding, in contrast to di- and trivalent metal ions, has no requirement for a synergistic anion.

Comparison of transferrin sequences from different species

1. Amino acid sequences of transferrins from eight species, from human to tobacco hornworm, have been compared. Eighty-four amino acids (12%) are invariant, including three of the four ligands for the N-terminal Fe3+ ion. 2. The most highly conserved regions of both lobes of transferrin are the internal beta-sheets of domains 1 and 2, and helices 5 and 7 which abut the Fe3+ binding site. Two small patches of conserved surface residues, which may be involved in receptor binding, have also been identified. 3. Phylogenies have been deduced from pairwise alignment of the sequences of the N- and C-terminal lobes independently. The phylogenies are consistent with the evolutionary tree derived from the fossil record, and with the observation that the gene duplication which created the N- and C-terminal lobes of transferrin occurred before the divergence of the mammalian and insect lines. 4. The phylogenies predict that the lactotransferrin family diverged some 200 Myr ago, after the separation of the lines leading to mammals and birds. In contrast, the phylogenies predict that melanotransferrin diverged before the separation of the mammalian and avian lines. 5. Sequence comparisons also suggest that the stoichiometry of the transferrin receptor:transferrin complex is 2:1.

In vivo formation of active aspartate transcarbamoylase from complementing fragments of the catalytic polypeptide chains

Despite the complexity of Escherichia coli aspartate transcarbamoylase (ATCase), composed of 12 polypeptide chains organized as two catalytic (C) trimers and three regulatory (R) dimers, it is possible to form active stable enzyme in vivo even with fragmented catalytic (c) chains. Based on the observation that chymotryptic digestion of the C trimers yields an active protein that can be dissociated into fragmented chains and then reconstituted in high yield, genetically engineered plasmids carrying the genes encoding each of the fragments were constructed. When the N-terminal peptide (residues 1-242) and the C-terminal peptide (residues 235-310) were expressed separately, each incomplete polypeptide chain was found in the insoluble fraction of the individual cell extracts. Mixing the two insoluble pellets in 6.5 M urea, followed by a 10-fold dilution in buffer, led to the formation of active C trimers composed of incomplete polypeptide chains with an 8-amino acid redundancy. When the two partial genes were linked into a single transcriptional unit separated by a 15-nucleotide untranslated region containing a sequence for ribosome binding, the cells produced high yields of active C trimers composed of the incomplete, partially overlapping chains. The resulting protein, purified as C trimers or as holoenzyme formed by the addition of R subunits, has a specific activity (Vmax) only slightly less than that of the wild-type C trimer and ATCase. However, Km for aspartate exhibited by the C trimer composed of fragmented chains is more than 10-fold larger than that of the wild-type trimer. The holoenzyme formed from the C trimer containing the coexpressed peptides is devoid of cooperativity with a Hill coefficient of 1.0, as contrasted to wild-type ATCase for which the Hill coefficient is 1.7. Km for aspartate as well as Kd for the binding of the bisubstrate analog N-(phosphonacetyl)-L-aspartate are significantly higher than the analogous values for wild-type ATCase. Sedimentation velocity experiments indicate that the holoenzyme containing the incomplete chains has a conformation analogous to that of the R state of wild-type ATCase.

The use of the polymerase chain reaction to map CD4+ T cell epitopes

CD4+ T cells recognize processed exogenous antigen in the form of peptides bound to syngeneic major histocompatibility complex class II molecules on antigen-presenting cells. We have developed a novel and convenient method to synthesize and map CD4+ T cell epitopes of cloned antigens using polymerase chain reaction (PCR)-directed construction of genes expressing recombinant protein fragments. Unique restriction sites incorporated into the PCR primers were employed for the unidirectional cloning of gene fragments into a bacterial expression vector that can be induced to high-level expression. The bacterial lysate could be used directly in T cell proliferation assays. Overlapping recombinant fragments spanning the entire protein were generated and tested. The length of the sequence containing the epitope was further reduced by utilizing PCR to generate 3' truncations. Finally, a small number of overlapping peptides spanning a sequence of 39 amino acids were synthesized to identify a thirteen-amino acid peptide epitope within chicken transferrin that stimulates the T helper cell clone D10.G4.1. PCR-directed construction of fragments of antigen allows for optimal design of strategies for the mapping and analysis of CD4+ T cell epitopes.

Efficient production and isolation of recombinant amino-terminal half-molecule of human serum transferrin from baby hamster kidney cells

Expression of the amino-terminal lobe of human serum transferrin secreted into the culture medium by transformed baby hamster kidney (BHK) cells has been increased from the levels reported originally of 10-15 micrograms/ml to 55-120 micrograms/ml. Use of the serum substitute, Ultraser G, has facilitated isolation of the recombinant protein, resulting in approximately 80% recovery of expressed hTF/2N from the culture medium. In the three experiments described, 300-750 mg of recombinant protein was collected over a period of 25 days from five expanded surface roller bottles each containing 200 ml of medium (seven to nine collections). The use of alginate beads to encapsulate the transformed BHK cells provided no advantage over normal culturing over 25 days. A lag in production resulting in 30% less recombinant protein over this time period was observed. The production and isolation procedures described are easily handled by one person. The system is amenable to incorporation of isotopically substituted amino acids useful in NMR studies.

Egg white proteins

1. Egg white proteins are the principal solutes present in egg white, making up approximately 10% of its weight. 2. They are globular proteins and most have acidic isoelectric points. 3. Many are glycoproteins with carbohydrate contents ranging from 2 to 58%. 4. Of the major egg white proteins, lysozyme is the only one having catalytic activity, but many have specific binding sites, e.g. for vitamins such as biotin, riboflavin and thiamin, or for metal ions such as FeIII. 5. A major group are those showing proteinase inhibitory activity, and they include ovomucoid, ovoinhibitor, cystatin and ovostatin. 6. The synthesis of egg white protein occurs in the oviduct, and is hormonally controlled either by oestrogens or progesterone. 7. Extensive studies have been carried out in the genes coding for egg white proteins.

Structure of human lactoferrin: crystallographic structure analysis and refinement at 2.8 A resolution

The structure of human lactoferrin has been refined crystallographically at 2.8 A (1 A = 0.1 nm) resolution using restrained least squares methods. The starting model was derived from a 3.2 A map phased by multiple isomorphous replacement with solvent flattening. Rebuilding during refinement made extensive use of these experimental phases, in combination with phases calculated from the partial model. The present model, which includes 681 of the 691 amino acid residues, two Fe3+, and two CO3(2-), gives an R factor of 0.206 for 17,266 observed reflections between 10 and 2.8 A resolution, with a root-mean-square deviation from standard bond lengths of 0.03 A. As a result of the refinement, two single-residue insertions and one 13-residue deletion have been made in the amino acid sequence, and details of the secondary structure and tertiary interactions have been clarified. The two lobes of the molecule, representing the N-terminal and C-terminal halves, have very similar folding, with a root-mean-square deviation, after superposition, of 1.32 A for 285 out of 330 C alpha atoms; the only major differences being in surface loops. Each lobe is subdivided into two dissimilar alpha/beta domains, one based on a six-stranded mixed beta-sheet, the other on a five-stranded mixed beta-sheet, with the iron site in the interdomain cleft. The two iron sites appear identical at the present resolution. Each iron atom is coordinated to four protein ligands, 2 Tyr, 1 Asp, 1 His, and the specific Co3(2-), which appears to bind to iron in a bidentate mode. The anion occupies a pocket between the iron and two positively charged groups on the protein, an arginine side-chain and the N terminus of helix 5, and may serve to neutralize this positive charge prior to iron binding. A large internal cavity, beyond the Arg side-chain, may account for the binding of larger anions as substitutes for CO3(2-). Residues on the other side of the iron site, near the interdomain crossover strands could provide secondary anion binding sites, and may explain the greater acid-stability of iron binding by lactoferrin, compared with serum transferrin. Interdomain and interlobe interactions, the roles of charged side-chains, heavy-atom binding sites, and the construction of the metal site in relation to the binding of different metals are also discussed.

Preliminary crystallographic studies on duck ovotransferrin

Crystals of duck ovotransferrin and duck apo-ovotransferrin have been grown from polyethylene glycol solutions. For both crystals, the space group is P2(1)2(1)2(1), the unit cell dimensions for the ovotransferrin are a = 49.6 A, b = 85.6 A, c = 178.7 A and for the apo-ovotransferrin a = 77.6 A, b = 98.8 A, c = 127.0 A, giving four molecules in the unit cell.

Binding of various ovotransferrin fragments to chick-embryo red cells

1. The ability of N- and C-terminal half-molecule fragments of hen ovotransferrin to interact with chick red blood cells (CERBC) has been studied under conditions that allow binding of the transferrin to transferrin receptors to take place, but not the delivery of iron to the cell. Two kinds of half-molecule fragments were used: (a) those which can associate with one another to give a dimer resembling native transferrin and (b) those which cannot associate in this way because they lack a few amino acid residues from their C-terminal ends. 2. Neither N nor C half-molecules alone can bind to the CERBC, but, when both are present, tight binding occurs. 3. Whether or not the half-molecules can associate with one another makes little difference to receptor binding. 4. Given that one of the half-molecules is iron-saturated, the presence or absence of iron in the contralateral half-molecule again makes little difference to receptor binding.