New insights into the activity of Pseudomonas aeruginosa cd1 nitrite reductase

Bacterial nitric oxide metabolism: Recent insights in rhizobia

Nitric oxide (NO) is a reactive gaseous molecule that has several functions in biological systems depending on its concentration. At low concentrations, NO acts as a signaling molecule, while at high concentrations, it becomes very toxic due to its ability to react with multiple cellular targets. Soil bacteria, commonly known as rhizobia, have the capacity to establish a N₂-fixing symbiosis with legumes inducing the formation of nodules in their roots. Several reports have shown NO production in the nodules where this gas acts either as a signaling molecule which regulates gene expression, or as a potent inhibitor of nitrogenase and other plant and bacteria enzymes. A better understanding of the sinks and sources of NO in rhizobia is essential to protect symbiotic nitrogen fixation from nitrosative stress. In nodules, both the plant and the microsymbiont contribute to the production of NO. From the bacterial perspective, the main source of NO reported in rhizobia is the denitrification pathway that varies significantly depending on the species. In addition to denitrification, nitrate assimilation is emerging as a new source of NO in rhizobia. To control NO accumulation in the nodules, in addition to plant haemoglobins, bacteroids also contribute to NO detoxification through the expression of a NorBC-type nitric oxide reductase as well as rhizobial haemoglobins. In the present review, updated knowledge about the NO metabolism in legume-associated endosymbiotic bacteria is summarized.

Influence of Hydrogen Electron Donor, Alkaline pH, and High Nitrate Concentrations on Microbial Denitrification: A Review

Bacterial respiration of nitrate is a natural process of nitrate reduction, which has been industrialized to treat anthropic nitrate pollution. This process, also known as “microbial denitrification”, is widely documented from the fundamental and engineering points of view for the enhancement of the removal of nitrate in wastewater. For this purpose, experiments are generally conducted with heterotrophic microbial metabolism, neutral pH and moderate nitrate concentrations (<50 mM). The present review focuses on a different approach as it aims to understand the effects of hydrogenotrophy, alkaline pH and high nitrate concentration on microbial denitrification. Hydrogen has a high energy content but its low solubility, 0.74 mM (1 atm, 30 °C), in aqueous medium limits its bioavailability, putting it at a kinetic disadvantage compared to more soluble organic compounds. For most bacteria, the optimal pH varies between 7.5 and 9.5. Outside this range, denitrification is slowed down and nitrite (NO₂⁻) accumulates. Some alkaliphilic bacteria are able to express denitrifying activity at pH levels close to 12 thanks to specific adaptation and resistance mechanisms detailed in this manuscript, and some bacterial populations support nitrate concentrations in the range of several hundred mM to 1 M. A high concentration of nitrate generally leads to an accumulation of nitrite. Nitrite accumulation can inhibit bacterial activity and may be a cause of cell death.

Nitric Oxide, an Old Molecule With Noble Functions in Pseudomonas aeruginosa Biology

Pseudomonas aeruginosa, a Gram-negative bacterium, is characterized by its versatility that enables persistent survival under adverse conditions. It can grow on diverse energy sources and readily acquire resistance to antimicrobial agents. As an opportunistic human pathogen, it also causes chronic infections inside the anaerobic mucus airways of cystic fibrosis patients. As a strict respirer, P. aeruginosa can grow by anaerobic nitrate ( [Formula: see text] ) respiration. Nitric oxide (NO) produced as an intermediate during anaerobic respiration exerts many important effects on the biological characteristics of P. aeruginosa. This review provides information regarding (i) how P. aeruginosa grows by anaerobic respiration, (ii) mechanisms by which NO is produced under such growth, and (iii) bacterial adaptation to NO. We also review the clinical relevance of NO in the fitness of P. aeruginosa and the use of NO as a potential therapeutic for treating P. aeruginosa infection.

Nitrous Oxide Metabolism in Nitrate-Reducing Bacteria: Physiology and Regulatory Mechanisms

Nitrous oxide (N2O) is an important greenhouse gas (GHG) with substantial global warming potential and also contributes to ozone depletion through photochemical nitric oxide (NO) production in the stratosphere. The negative effects of N2O on climate and stratospheric ozone make N2O mitigation an international challenge. More than 60% of global N2O emissions are emitted from agricultural soils mainly due to the application of synthetic nitrogen-containing fertilizers. Thus, mitigation strategies must be developed which increase (or at least do not negatively impact) on agricultural efficiency whilst decrease the levels of N2O released. This aim is particularly important in the context of the ever expanding population and subsequent increased burden on the food chain. More than two-thirds of N2O emissions from soils can be attributed to bacterial and fungal denitrification and nitrification processes. In ammonia-oxidizing bacteria, N2O is formed through the oxidation of hydroxylamine to nitrite. In denitrifiers, nitrate is reduced to N2 via nitrite, NO and N2O production. In addition to denitrification, respiratory nitrate ammonification (also termed dissimilatory nitrate reduction to ammonium) is another important nitrate-reducing mechanism in soil, responsible for the loss of nitrate and production of N2O from reduction of NO that is formed as a by-product of the reduction process. This review will synthesize our current understanding of the environmental, regulatory and biochemical control of N2O emissions by nitrate-reducing bacteria and point to new solutions for agricultural GHG mitigation.

Genetic basis for denitrification in Ensifer meliloti

Background

Denitrification is defined as the dissimilatory reduction of nitrate or nitrite to nitric oxide (NO), nitrous oxide (N₂O), or dinitrogen gas (N₂). N₂O is a powerful atmospheric greenhouse gas and cause of ozone layer depletion. Legume crops might contribute to N₂O production by providing nitrogen-rich residues for decomposition or by associating with rhizobia that are able to denitrify under free-living and symbiotic conditions. However, there are limited direct empirical data concerning N₂O production by endosymbiotic bacteria associated with legume crops. Analysis of the Ensifer meliloti 1021 genome sequence revealed the presence of the napEFDABC, nirK, norECBQD and nosRZDFYLX denitrification genes. It was recently reported that this bacterium is able to grow using nitrate respiration when cells are incubated with an initial O₂ concentration of 2%; however, these cells were unable to use nitrate respiration when initially incubated anoxically. The involvement of the nap, nirK, nor and nos genes in E. meliloti denitrification has not been reported.

Results

E. meliloti nap, nirK and norC mutant strains exhibited defects in their ability to grow using nitrate as a respiratory substrate. However, E meliloti nosZ was not essential for growth under these conditions. The E. meliloti napA, nirK, norC and nosZ genes encode corresponding nitrate, nitrite, nitric oxide and nitrous oxide reductases, respectively. The NorC component of the E. meliloti nitric oxide reductase has been identified as a c-type cytochrome that is 16 kDa in size. Herein, we also show that maximal expression of the E. meliloti napA, nirK, norC and nosZ genes occurred when cells were initially incubated anoxically with nitrate.

Conclusion

The E. meliloti napA, nirK, norC and nosZ genes are involved in nitrate respiration and in the expression of denitrification enzymes in this bacterium. Our findings expand the short list of rhizobia for which denitrification gene function has been demonstrated. The inability of E. meliloti to grow when cells are initially subjected to anoxic conditions is not attributable to defects in the expression of the napA, nirK, norC and nosZ denitrification genes.

Evidence for function overlapping of CymA and the cytochrome bc1 complex in the Shewanella oneidensis nitrate and nitrite respiration

Shewanella oneidensis is an important model organism for its versatility of anaerobic respiration. CymA, a cytoplasmic membrane-bound tetraheme c-type cytochrome, plays a central role in anaerobic respiration by transferring electrons from the quinone pool to a variety of terminal reductases. Although loss of CymA results in defect in respiration of many electron acceptors (EAs), a significant share of the capacity remains in general. In this study, we adopted a transposon random mutagenesis method in a cymA null mutant to identify substituent(s) of CymA with respect to nitrite and nitrate respiration. A total of 87 insertion mutants, whose ability to reduce nitrite was further impaired, were obtained. Among the interrupted genes, the petABC operon appeared to be the most likely candidate given the involvement of the cytochrome bc1 complex that it encodes in electron transport. Subsequent analyses not only confirmed that the complex and CymA were indeed functionally overlapping in nitrate/nitrite respiration but also revealed that both proteins were able to draw electrons from ubiquinone and menaquinone. Furthermore, we found that expression of the bc1 complex was affected by oxygen but not nitrate or nitrite and by global regulators ArcA and Crp in an indirect manner.

Maturation of the cytochrome cd1 nitrite reductase NirS from Pseudomonas aeruginosa requires transient interactions between the three proteins NirS, NirN and NirF

The periplasmic cytochrome cd₁ nitrite reductase NirS occurring in denitrifying bacteria such as the human pathogen Pseudomonas aeruginosa contains the essential tetrapyrrole cofactors haem c and haem d₁. Whereas the haem c is incorporated into NirS by the cytochrome c maturation system I, nothing is known about the insertion of the haem d₁ into NirS. Here, we show by co-immunoprecipitation that NirS interacts with the potential haem d₁ insertion protein NirN in vivo. This NirS–NirN interaction is dependent on the presence of the putative haem d₁ biosynthesis enzyme NirF. Further, we show by affinity co-purification that NirS also directly interacts with NirF. Additionally, NirF is shown to be a membrane anchored lipoprotein in P. aeruginosa. Finally, the analysis by UV–visible absorption spectroscopy of the periplasmic protein fractions prepared from the P. aeruginosa WT (wild-type) and a P. aeruginosa ΔnirN mutant shows that the cofactor content of NirS is altered in the absence of NirN. Based on our results, we propose a potential model for the maturation of NirS in which the three proteins NirS, NirN and NirF form a transient, membrane-associated complex in order to achieve the last step of haem d₁ biosynthesis and insertion of the cofactor into NirS.

Bacterial adaptation of respiration from oxic to microoxic and anoxic conditions: redox control

Under a shortage of oxygen, bacterial growth can be faced mainly by two ATP-generating mechanisms: (i) by synthesis of specific high-affinity terminal oxidases that allow bacteria to use traces of oxygen or (ii) by utilizing other substrates as final electron acceptors such as nitrate, which can be reduced to dinitrogen gas through denitrification or to ammonium. This bacterial respiratory shift from oxic to microoxic and anoxic conditions requires a regulatory strategy which ensures that cells can sense and respond to changes in oxygen tension and to the availability of other electron acceptors. Bacteria can sense oxygen by direct interaction of this molecule with a membrane protein receptor (e.g., FixL) or by interaction with a cytoplasmic transcriptional factor (e.g., Fnr). A third type of oxygen perception is based on sensing changes in redox state of molecules within the cell. Redox-responsive regulatory systems (e.g., ArcBA, RegBA/PrrBA, RoxSR, RegSR, ActSR, ResDE, and Rex) integrate the response to multiple signals (e.g., ubiquinone, menaquinone, redox active cysteine, electron transport to terminal oxidases, and NAD/NADH) and activate or repress target genes to coordinate the adaptation of bacterial respiration from oxic to anoxic conditions. Here, we provide a compilation of the current knowledge about proteins and regulatory networks involved in the redox control of the respiratory adaptation of different bacterial species to microxic and anoxic environments.

Low-spin heme b(3) in the catalytic center of nitric oxide reductase from Pseudomonas nautica

Respiratory nitric oxide reductase (NOR) was purified from membrane extract of Pseudomonas (Ps.) nautica cells to homogeneity as judged by polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis. The purified protein is a heterodimer with subunits of molecular masses of 54 and 18 kDa. The gene encoding both subunits was cloned and sequenced. The amino acid sequence shows strong homology with enzymes of the cNOR class. Iron/heme determinations show that one heme c is present in the small subunit (NORC) and that approximately two heme b and one non-heme iron are associated with the large subunit (NORB), in agreement with the available data for enzymes of the cNOR class. Mössbauer characterization of the as-purified, ascorbate-reduced, and dithionite-reduced enzyme confirms the presence of three heme groups (the catalytic heme b(3) and the electron transfer heme b and heme c) and one redox-active non-heme Fe (Fe(B)). Consistent with results obtained for other cNORs, heme c and heme b in Ps. nautica cNOR were found to be low-spin while Fe(B) was found to be high-spin. Unexpectedly, as opposed to the presumed high-spin state for heme b(3), the Mössbauer data demonstrate unambiguously that heme b(3) is, in fact, low-spin in both ferric and ferrous states, suggesting that heme b(3) is six-coordinated regardless of its oxidation state. EPR spectroscopic measurements of the as-purified enzyme show resonances at the g ∼ 6 and g ∼ 2-3 regions very similar to those reported previously for other cNORs. The signals at g = 3.60, 2.99, 2.26, and 1.43 are attributed to the two charge-transfer low-spin ferric heme c and heme b. Previously, resonances at the g ∼ 6 region were assigned to a small quantity of uncoupled high-spin Fe(III) heme b(3). This assignment is now questionable because heme b(3) is low-spin. On the basis of our spectroscopic data, we argue that the g = 6.34 signal is likely arising from a spin-spin coupled binuclear center comprising the low-spin Fe(III) heme b(3) and the high-spin Fe(B)(III). Activity assays performed under various reducing conditions indicate that heme b(3) has to be reduced for the enzyme to be active. But, from an energetic point of view, the formation of a ferrous heme-NO as an initial reaction intermediate for NO reduction is disfavored because heme [FeNO](7) is a stable product. We suspect that the presence of a sixth ligand in the Fe(II)-heme b(3) may weaken its affinity for NO and thus promotes, in the first catalytic step, binding of NO at the Fe(B)(II) site. The function of heme b(3) would then be to orient the Fe(B)-bound NO molecules for the formation of the N-N bond and to provide reducing equivalents for NO reduction.

The catalytic mechanism of Pseudomonas aeruginosa cd1 nitrite reductase

The cd1 NiRs (nitrite reductases) are enzymes catalysing the reduction of nitrite to NO (nitric oxide) in the bacterial energy conversion denitrification process. These enzymes contain two distinct redox centres: one covalently bound c-haem, which is reduced by external electron donors, and another peculiar porphyrin, the d1-haem (3,8-dioxo-17-acrylate-porphyrindione), where nitrite is reduced to NO. In the present paper, we summarize the most recent results on the mechanism of nitrite reduction by the cd1 NiR from Pseudomonas aeruginosa. We discuss the essential catalytic features of this enzyme, with special attention to the allosteric regulation of the enzyme's activity and to the mechanism employed to avoid product inhibition, i.e. trapping of the active-site reduced haem by the product NO. These results shed light on the reactivity of cd1 NiRs and assign a central role to the unique d1-haem, present only in this class of enzymes.

Enzymology and ecology of the nitrogen cycle

The nitrogen cycle describes the processes through which nitrogen is converted between its various chemical forms. These transformations involve both biological and abiotic redox processes. The principal processes involved in the nitrogen cycle are nitrogen fixation, nitrification, nitrate assimilation, respiratory reduction of nitrate to ammonia, anaerobic ammonia oxidation (anammox) and denitrification. All of these are carried out by micro-organisms, including bacteria, archaea and some specialized fungi. In the present article, we provide a brief introduction to both the biochemical and ecological aspects of these processes and consider how human activity over the last 100 years has changed the historic balance of the global nitrogen cycle.

Nitrite reduction: a ubiquitous function from a pre-aerobic past

In eukaryotes, small amounts of nitrite confer cytoprotection against ischemia/reperfusion-related tissue damage in vivo, possibly via reduction to nitric oxide (NO) and inhibition of mitochondrial function. Several hemeproteins are involved in this protective mechanism, starting with deoxyhemoglobin, which is capable of reducing nitrite. In facultative aerobic bacteria, such as Pseudomonas aeruginosa, nitrite is reduced to NO by specialized heme-containing enzymes called cd(1) nitrite reductases. The details of their catalytic mechanism are summarized below, together with a hypothesis on the biological role of the unusual d(1)-heme, which, in the reduced state, shows unique properties (very high affinity for nitrite and exceptionally fast dissociation of NO). Our results support the idea that the nitrite-based reactions of contemporary eukaryotes are a vestige of earlier bacterial biochemical pathways. The evidence that nitrite reductase activities of enzymes with different cellular roles and biochemical features still exist today highlights the importance of nitrite in cellular homeostasis.