Astroglial CB1 receptors, energy metabolism, and gliotransmission: an integrated signaling system?

The role of the endocannabinoid system in the pathogenesis and treatment of epilepsy

Epilepsy is a group of chronic neurological brain disorders characterized by recurrent spontaneous unprovoked seizures, which are accompanied by significant neurobiological, cognitive, and psychosocial impairments. With a global prevalence of approximately 0.5-1 % of the population, epilepsy remains a serious public health concern. Despite the development and widespread use of over 20 anticonvulsant drugs, around 30 % of patients continue to experience drug-resistant seizures, leading to a substantial reduction in quality of life and increased mortality risk. Given the limited efficacy of current treatments, exploring new therapeutic approaches is critically important. In recent years, Gi-protein-coupled receptors, particularly cannabinoid receptors CB1 and CB2, have garnered increasing attention as promising targets for the treatment seizures and prevention of epilepsy. Emerging evidence suggests a significant role of the cannabinoid system in modulating neuronal activity and protecting against hyperexcitability, underscoring the importance of further research in this area. This review provides up-to-date insights into the pathogenesis and treatment of epilepsy, with a special focus on the role of the cannabinoid system, highlighting the need for continued investigation to develop more effective therapeutic strategies.

A lactate-dependent shift of glycolysis mediates synaptic and cognitive processes in male mice

Astrocytes control brain activity via both metabolic processes and gliotransmission, but the physiological links between these functions are scantly known. Here we show that endogenous activation of astrocyte type-1 cannabinoid (CB1) receptors determines a shift of glycolysis towards the lactate-dependent production of D-serine, thereby gating synaptic and cognitive functions in male mice. Mutant mice lacking the CB1 receptor gene in astrocytes (GFAP-CB1-KO) are impaired in novel object recognition (NOR) memory. This phenotype is rescued by the gliotransmitter D-serine, by its precursor L-serine, and also by lactate and 3,5-DHBA, an agonist of the lactate receptor HCAR1. Such lactate-dependent effect is abolished when the astrocyte-specific phosphorylated-pathway (PP), which diverts glycolysis towards L-serine synthesis, is blocked. Consistently, lactate and 3,5-DHBA promoted the co-agonist binding site occupancy of CA1 post-synaptic NMDA receptors in hippocampal slices in a PP-dependent manner. Thus, a tight cross-talk between astrocytic energy metabolism and gliotransmission determines synaptic and cognitive processes.

Perturbation of 3D nuclear architecture, epigenomic aging and dysregulation, and cannabinoid synaptopathy reconfigures conceptualization of cannabinoid pathophysiology: part 2-Metabolome, immunome, synaptome

The second part of this paper builds upon and expands the epigenomic-aging perspective presented in Part 1 to describe the metabolomic and immunomic bases of the epigenomic-aging changes and then considers in some detail the application of these insights to neurotoxicity, neuronal epigenotoxicity, and synaptopathy. Cannabinoids are well-known to have bidirectional immunomodulatory activities on numerous parts of the immune system. Immune perturbations are well-known to impact the aging process, the epigenome, and intermediate metabolism. Cannabinoids also impact metabolism via many pathways. Metabolism directly impacts immune, genetic, and epigenetic processes. Synaptic activity, synaptic pruning, and, thus, the sculpting of neural circuits are based upon metabolic, immune, and epigenomic networks at the synapse, around the synapse, and in the cell body. Many neuropsychiatric disorders including depression, anxiety, schizophrenia, bipolar affective disorder, and autistic spectrum disorder have been linked with cannabis. Therefore, it is important to consider these features and their complex interrelationships in reaching a comprehensive understanding of cannabinoid dependence. Together these findings indicate that cannabinoid perturbations of the immunome and metabolome are important to consider alongside the well-recognized genomic and epigenomic perturbations and it is important to understand their interdependence and interconnectedness in reaching a comprehensive appreciation of the true nature of cannabinoid pathophysiology. For these reasons, a comprehensive appreciation of cannabinoid pathophysiology necessitates a coordinated multiomics investigation of cannabinoid genome-epigenome-transcriptome-metabolome-immunome, chromatin conformation, and 3D nuclear architecture which therefore form the proper mechanistic underpinning for major new and concerning epidemiological findings relating to cannabis exposure.

Perturbation of 3D nuclear architecture, epigenomic dysregulation and aging, and cannabinoid synaptopathy reconfigures conceptualization of cannabinoid pathophysiology: part 1-aging and epigenomics

Much recent attention has been directed toward the spatial organization of the cell nucleus and the manner in which three-dimensional topologically associated domains and transcription factories are epigenetically coordinated to precisely bring enhancers into close proximity with promoters to control gene expression. Twenty lines of evidence robustly implicate cannabinoid exposure with accelerated organismal and cellular aging. Aging has recently been shown to be caused by increased DNA breaks. These breaks rearrange and maldistribute the epigenomic machinery to weaken and reverse cellular differentiation, cause genome-wide DNA demethylation, reduce gene transcription, and lead to the inhibition of developmental pathways, which contribute to the progressive loss of function and chronic immune stimulation that characterize cellular aging. Both cell lineage-defining superenhancers and the superanchors that control them are weakened. Cannabis exposure phenocopies the elements of this process and reproduces DNA and chromatin breakages, reduces the DNA, RNA protein and histone synthesis, interferes with the epigenomic machinery controlling both DNA and histone modifications, induces general DNA hypomethylation, and epigenomically disrupts both the critical boundary elements and the cohesin motors that create chromatin loops. This pattern of widespread interference with developmental programs and relative cellular dedifferentiation (which is pro-oncogenic) is reinforced by cannabinoid impairment of intermediate metabolism (which locks in the stem cell-like hyper-replicative state) and cannabinoid immune stimulation (which perpetuates and increases aging and senescence programs, DNA damage, DNA hypomethylation, genomic instability, and oncogenesis), which together account for the diverse pattern of teratologic and carcinogenic outcomes reported in recent large epidemiologic studies in Europe, the USA, and elsewhere. It also accounts for the prominent aging phenotype observed clinically in long-term cannabis use disorder and the 20 characteristics of aging that it manifests. Increasing daily cannabis use, increasing use in pregnancy, and exponential dose-response effects heighten the epidemiologic and clinical urgency of these findings. Together, these findings indicate that cannabinoid genotoxicity and epigenotoxicity are prominent features of cannabis dependence and strongly indicate coordinated multiomics investigations of cannabinoid genome-epigenome-transcriptome-metabolome, chromatin conformation, and 3D nuclear architecture. Considering the well-established exponential dose-response relationships, the diversity of cannabinoids, and the multigenerational nature of the implications, great caution is warranted in community cannabinoid penetration.

Sex-Dependent Altered Expression of Cannabinoid Signaling in Hippocampal Astrocytes of the Triple Transgenic Mouse Model of Alzheimer's Disease: Implications for Controlling Astroglial Activity

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a common neurodegenerative disease. In AD-associated neuroinflammation, astrocytes play a key role, finding glial activation both in patients and in animal models. The endocannabinoid system (ECS) is a neurolipid signaling system with anti-inflammatory and neuroprotective properties implicated in AD. Astrocytes respond to external cannabinoid signals and also have their own cannabinoid signaling. Our main objective is to describe the cannabinoid signaling machinery present in hippocampal astrocytes from 3×Tg-AD mice to determine if they are actively involved in the neurodegenerative process. Primary cultures of astrocytes from the hippocampus of 3×Tg-AD and non-Tg offspring were carried out. We analyzed the gene expression of astrogliosis markers, the main components of the ECS and Ca2+ signaling. 3×Tg-AD hippocampal astrocytes show low inflammatory activity (Il1b, Il6, and Gls) and Ca2+ flow (P2rx5 and Mcu), associated with low cannabinoid signaling (Cnr1 and Cnr2). These results were more evident in females. Our study corroborates glial involvement in AD pathology, in which cannabinoid signaling plays an important role. 3×Tg-AD mice born with hippocampal astrocytes with differential gene expression of the ECS associated with an innate attenuation of their activity. In addition, we show that there are sex differences from birth in this AD animal, which should be considered when investigating the pathogenesis of the disease.

A subtle structural modification of a synthetic cannabinoid receptor agonist drastically increases its efficacy at the CB1 receptor

The emergence of synthetic cannabinoid receptor agonists (SCRAs) as illicit psychoactive substances has posed considerable public health risks that include fatalities. Many SCRAs exhibit much higher efficacy and potency, compared with the phytocannabinoid Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), at the cannabinoid receptor 1 (CB1R), a G protein-coupled receptor involved in modulating neurotransmitter release. In this study, we investigated structure activity relationships (SAR) of aminoalkylindole SCRAs at CB1Rs, focusing on 5F-pentylindoles containing an amide linker attached to different head moieties. Using in vitro bioluminescence resonance energy transfer (BRET) assays, we identified a few of SCRAs exhibiting significantly higher efficacy in engaging the Gi protein and recruiting β-arrestin than the reference CB1R full agonist CP55940. Importantly, adding a methyl group at the head moiety of 5F-MMB-PICA yielded 5F-MDMB-PICA, an agonist exhibiting a large increase in efficacy and potency at the CB1R. This pharmacological observation was supported by a functional assay of the effects of these SCRAs on glutamate field potentials recorded in hippocampal slices. Molecular modeling and simulations of the CB1R bound with either of the SCRAs revealed critical structural determinants contributing to the higher efficacy of 5F-MDMB-PICA, and how these subtle differences propagated to the receptor-G protein interface. Thus, we find that apparently minor structural changes in the head moiety of SCRAs can cause major changes in efficacy. Our results highlight the need for close monitoring of structural modifications of newly emerging SCRAs and their potential for toxic drug responses in humans.

A special issue in Essays in Biochemistry on astrocytes-more than a neuronal support network

Astrocytes are a type of non-neuronal, glial cells, anatomically placed in the intersection between the brain blood vessels and other neural cells-including neurons. Such a strategic situation confers these cells a unique opportunity to sense circulating molecules and adapt according to different organismal conditions. By acting as sentinel cells, astrocytes thus co-ordinate gene expression profiles, immune responses, signal transduction pathways, and metabolic programs that play essential roles in the formation of brain circuits to modulate neurotransmission and higher-order organismal functions.