1
|
Spiteri AG, Wishart CL, Pamphlett R, Locatelli G, King NJC. Microglia and monocytes in inflammatory CNS disease: integrating phenotype and function. Acta Neuropathol 2022; 143:179-224. [PMID: 34853891 PMCID: PMC8742818 DOI: 10.1007/s00401-021-02384-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 89] [Impact Index Per Article: 44.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/17/2021] [Revised: 11/11/2021] [Accepted: 11/11/2021] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
In neurological diseases, the actions of microglia, the resident myeloid cells of the CNS parenchyma, may diverge from, or intersect with, those of recruited monocytes to drive immune-mediated pathology. However, defining the precise roles of each cell type has historically been impeded by the lack of discriminating markers and experimental systems capable of accurately identifying them. Our ability to distinguish microglia from monocytes in neuroinflammation has advanced with single-cell technologies, new markers and drugs that identify and deplete them, respectively. Nevertheless, the focus of individual studies on particular cell types, diseases or experimental approaches has limited our ability to connect phenotype and function more widely and across diverse CNS pathologies. Here, we critically review, tabulate and integrate the disease-specific functions and immune profiles of microglia and monocytes to provide a comprehensive atlas of myeloid responses in viral encephalitis, demyelination, neurodegeneration and ischemic injury. In emphasizing the differential roles of microglia and monocytes in the severe neuroinflammatory disease of viral encephalitis, we connect inflammatory pathways common to equally incapacitating diseases with less severe inflammation. We examine these findings in the context of human studies and highlight the benefits and inherent limitations of animal models that may impede or facilitate clinical translation. This enables us to highlight common and contrasting, non-redundant and often opposing roles of microglia and monocytes in disease that could be targeted therapeutically.
Collapse
|
2
|
Blitvich BJ, Magalhaes T, Laredo-Tiscareño SV, Foy BD. Sexual Transmission of Arboviruses: A Systematic Review. Viruses 2020; 12:v12090933. [PMID: 32854298 PMCID: PMC7552039 DOI: 10.3390/v12090933] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/06/2020] [Revised: 08/20/2020] [Accepted: 08/22/2020] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Arthropod-borne viruses (arboviruses) are primarily maintained in nature in transmission cycles between hematophagous arthropods and vertebrate hosts, but an increasing number of arboviruses have been isolated from or indirectly detected in the urogenital tract and sexual secretions of their vertebrate hosts, indicating that further investigation on the possibility of sexual transmission of these viruses is warranted. The most widely recognized sexually-transmitted arbovirus is Zika virus but other arboviruses, including Crimean-Congo hemorrhagic fever virus and dengue virus, might also be transmitted, albeit occasionally, by this route. This review summarizes our current understanding on the ability of arboviruses to be sexually transmitted. We discuss the sexual transmission of arboviruses between humans and between vertebrate animals, but not arthropod vectors. Every taxonomic group known to contain arboviruses (Asfarviridae, Bunyavirales, Flaviviridae, Orthomyxoviridae, Reoviridae, Rhabdoviridae and Togaviridae) is covered.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Bradley J. Blitvich
- Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Preventive Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, Iowa State University, Ames, IA 50011, USA;
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +1-515-294-9861; Fax: +1-515-294-8500
| | - Tereza Magalhaes
- Arthropod-Borne and Infectious Diseases Laboratory, Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Pathology, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO 80523, USA; (T.M.); (B.D.F.)
| | - S. Viridiana Laredo-Tiscareño
- Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Preventive Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, Iowa State University, Ames, IA 50011, USA;
| | - Brian D. Foy
- Arthropod-Borne and Infectious Diseases Laboratory, Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Pathology, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO 80523, USA; (T.M.); (B.D.F.)
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Counotte MJ, Kim CR, Wang J, Bernstein K, Deal CD, Broutet NJN, Low N. Sexual transmission of Zika virus and other flaviviruses: A living systematic review. PLoS Med 2018; 15:e1002611. [PMID: 30040845 PMCID: PMC6057622 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pmed.1002611] [Citation(s) in RCA: 99] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/16/2018] [Accepted: 06/14/2018] [Indexed: 12/09/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Health authorities in the United States and Europe reported an increasing number of travel-associated episodes of sexual transmission of Zika virus (ZIKV) following the 2015-2017 ZIKV outbreak. This, and other scientific evidence, suggests that ZIKV is sexually transmissible in addition to having its primary mosquito-borne route. The objective of this systematic review and evidence synthesis was to clarify the epidemiology of sexually transmitted ZIKV. METHODS AND FINDINGS We performed a living (i.e., continually updated) systematic review of evidence published up to 15 April 2018 about sexual transmission of ZIKV and other arthropod-borne flaviviruses in humans and other animals. We defined 7 key elements of ZIKV sexual transmission for which we extracted data: (1) rectal and vaginal susceptibility to infection, (2) incubation period following sexual transmission, (3) serial interval between the onset of symptoms in a primary and secondary infected individuals, (4) duration of infectiousness, (5) reproduction number, (6) probability of transmission per sex act, and (7) transmission rate. We identified 1,227 unique publications and included 128, of which 77 presented data on humans and 51 presented data on animals. Laboratory experiments confirm that rectal and vaginal mucosae are susceptible to infection with ZIKV and that the testis serves as a reservoir for the virus in animal models. Sexual transmission was reported in 36 human couples: 34/36 of these involved male-to-female sexual transmission. The median serial symptom onset interval in 15 couples was 12 days (interquartile range: 10-14.5); the maximum was 44 days. We found evidence from 2 prospective cohorts that ZIKV RNA is present in human semen with a median duration of 34 days (95% CI: 28-41 days) and 35 days (no CI given) (low certainty of evidence, according to GRADE). Aggregated data about detection of ZIKV RNA from 37 case reports and case series indicate a median duration of detection of ZIKV of 40 days (95% CI: 30-49 days) and maximum duration of 370 days in semen. In human vaginal fluid, median duration was 14 days (95% CI: 7-20 days) and maximum duration was 37 days (very low certainty). Infectious virus in human semen was detected for a median duration of 12 days (95% CI: 1-21 days) and maximum of 69 days. Modelling studies indicate that the reproduction number is below 1 (very low certainty). Evidence was lacking to estimate the incubation period or the transmission rate. Evidence on sexual transmission of other flaviviruses was scarce. The certainty of the evidence is limited because of uncontrolled residual bias. CONCLUSIONS The living systematic review and sexual transmission framework allowed us to assess evidence about the risk of sexual transmission of ZIKV. ZIKV is more likely transmitted from men to women than from women to men. For other flaviviruses, evidence of sexual transmissibility is still absent. Taking into account all available data about the duration of detection of ZIKV in culture and from the serial interval, our findings suggest that the infectious period for sexual transmission of ZIKV is shorter than estimates from the earliest post-outbreak studies, which were based on reverse transcription PCR alone.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | - Caron Rahn Kim
- Department of Reproductive Health and Research, World Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Jingying Wang
- Institute of Social and Preventive Medicine, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
| | - Kyle Bernstein
- Division of Sexually Transmitted Disease Prevention, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia, United States of America
| | - Carolyn D. Deal
- National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, Bethesda, Maryland, United States of America
| | | | - Nicola Low
- Institute of Social and Preventive Medicine, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
A Mouse Model of Zika Virus Sexual Transmission and Vaginal Viral Replication. Cell Rep 2017; 17:3091-3098. [PMID: 28009279 DOI: 10.1016/j.celrep.2016.11.070] [Citation(s) in RCA: 113] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/23/2016] [Revised: 10/16/2016] [Accepted: 11/23/2016] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Case reports of Zika virus (ZIKV) sexual transmission and genital persistence are mounting. Venereal transmission and genital persistence threaten public health within and beyond the range of ZIKV's mosquito vectors. In this study, we administered ZIKV into the vaginas of AG129 mice and LysMCre+IFNARfl/fl C57BL/6 mice after hormonal treatments. Mice infected during estrus-like phase were resistant to vaginal infection. In contrast, when infected during diestrus-like phase, AG129 mice succumbed to infection, whereas LysMCre+IFNARfl/fl mice experienced transient illness. Patency of transgenital transmission (TGT) in diestrus-like mice was demonstrated by detection of viremia and ZIKV replication in spleen and brain, and viral RNA persisted in vaginal washes as late as 10 days post-infection. In these lethal and sublethal mouse models, this study indicates that intravaginal deposition of ZIKV can cause TGT, hormonal changes in the female reproductive tract (FRT) influence transmission, and ZIKV replication persists in the FRT for several days.
Collapse
|
5
|
Davison AM, King NJC. Accelerated dendritic cell differentiation from migrating Ly6C(lo) bone marrow monocytes in early dermal West Nile virus infection. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2011; 186:2382-96. [PMID: 21248254 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.1002682] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
No study has investigated the participation of Ly6C(+) monocytes in the earliest phase of skin infection with the mosquito-borne West Nile virus. In a novel murine model mimicking natural dermal infection, CCL2-dependent bone marrow (BM)-derived monocyte migration, differentiation into Ly6C(+) dendritic cells (DC), and accumulation around dermal deposits of infected fibroblasts by day 1 postinfection were associated with increasing numbers of monocyte-derived TNF/inducible NO synthase-producing DC by day 2 postinfection in draining auricular lymph nodes (ALN). Adoptive transfer demonstrated simultaneous migration of bone marrow-derived Ly6C(lo) monocytes to virus-infected dermis and ALN, where they first become Ly6C(hi) DC within 24 h and then Ly6C(lo) DC by 72 h. DC migration from the infected dermis to the ALN derived exclusively from Ly6C(lo) BM monocytes. This demonstrates that Ly6C(hi) and Ly6C(lo) BM-derived monocytes have different fates in vivo and suggests that BM may be a reservoir of preinflammatory monocytes for rapid deployment as inflammatory DC during virus infection.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ariane M Davison
- Discipline of Pathology, School of Medical Sciences, Bosch Institute, University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales 2006, Australia
| | | |
Collapse
|
6
|
Welte T, Reagan K, Fang H, Machain-Williams C, Zheng X, Mendell N, Chang GJJ, Wu P, Blair CD, Wang T. Toll-like receptor 7-induced immune response to cutaneous West Nile virus infection. J Gen Virol 2009; 90:2660-2668. [PMID: 19641044 DOI: 10.1099/vir.0.011783-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 69] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
The Toll-like receptor (TLR) 7 response represents a vital host-defence mechanism in a murine model of systemic West Nile virus (WNV) infection. Here, we investigated the role of the TLR7-induced immune response following cutaneous WNV infection. We found that there was no difference in susceptibility to WNV encephalitis between wild-type and TLR7(-/-) mice upon intradermal injection or infected mosquito feeding. Viral load analysis revealed similar levels of WNV RNA in the peripheral tissues and brains of these two groups of mice following intradermal infection. There was a higher level of cytokines in the blood of wild-type mice at early stages of infection; however, this difference was diminished in the blood and brains at later stages. Langerhans cells (LCs) are permissive to WNV infection and migrate from the skin to draining lymph nodes upon intradermal challenge. Our data showed that WNV infection of TLR7(-/-) keratinocytes was significantly higher than that of wild-type keratinocytes. Infection of wild-type keratinocytes induced higher levels of alpha interferon and interleukin-1beta (IL-1beta), IL-6 and IL-12, which might promote LC migration from the skin. Co-culture of naïve LCs of wild-type mice with WNV-infected wild-type keratinocytes resulted in the production of more IL-6 and IL-12 than with TLR7(-/-) keratinocytes or by cultured LCs alone. Moreover, LCs in the epidermis were reduced in wild-type mice, but not in TLR7(-/-) mice, following intradermal WNV infection. Overall, our results suggest that the TLR7 response following cutaneous infection promotes LC migration from the skin, which might compromise its protective effect in systemic infection.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Thomas Welte
- Departments of Microbiology and Immunology, and Pathology, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, TX 77555-0609, USA
| | - Krystle Reagan
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Pathology, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO 80523, USA
| | - Hao Fang
- Departments of Microbiology and Immunology, and Pathology, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, TX 77555-0609, USA
| | - Carlos Machain-Williams
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Pathology, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO 80523, USA
| | - Xin Zheng
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Pathology, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO 80523, USA
| | - Nicole Mendell
- Departments of Microbiology and Immunology, and Pathology, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, TX 77555-0609, USA
| | - Gwong-Jen J Chang
- Division of Vector-Borne Infectious Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 3150 Rampart Road, CDC-Foothills Campus, Fort Collins, CO 80521, USA
| | - Ping Wu
- Department of Neuroscience and Cell Biology, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, TX 77555-0620, USA
| | - Carol D Blair
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Pathology, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO 80523, USA
| | - Tian Wang
- Departments of Microbiology and Immunology, and Pathology, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, TX 77555-0609, USA
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
King NJC, Getts DR, Getts MT, Rana S, Shrestha B, Kesson AM. Immunopathology of flavivirus infections. Immunol Cell Biol 2006; 85:33-42. [PMID: 17146465 DOI: 10.1038/sj.icb.7100012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 140] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
With the recent emergence of the flavivirus, West Nile virus (WNV), in particular, the New York strain of Lineage I WNV in North America in 1999, there has been a significant increase in activity in neurotropic flavivirus research. These viruses cause encephalitis that can result in permanent neurological sequelae or death. Attempts to develop vaccines have made progress, but have been variably successful, despite considerable commercial underwriting. Thus, the discovery of ways and means to combat disease is no less urgent. As such, most recent work has been directed towards dissecting and understanding the pathogenesis of disease, as a way of informing possible approaches to abrogation or amelioration of illness. Whether inherent to flaviviruses or because humans are incidental, dead-end hosts, it is clear that these viruses interact with their human hosts in extremely complex ways. This occurs from the cellular level, at which infection must be established to produce disease, to its interaction with the adaptive immune response, which may result in its eradication, with or without immunopathological and consequent neurological sequelae. As human proximity to and contact with flavivirus insect vectors and amplifying hosts cannot practically be eliminated, our understanding of the pathogenesis of flavivirus-induced diseases, especially with regard to possible targets for treatment, is imperative.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Nicholas J C King
- Department of Pathology, School of Medical Sciences, Bosch Institute, The University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia.
| | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|