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Tumor Suppressor Protein p53 and Inhibitor of Apoptosis Proteins in Colorectal Cancer-A Promising Signaling Network for Therapeutic Interventions. Cancers (Basel) 2021; 13:cancers13040624. [PMID: 33557398 PMCID: PMC7916307 DOI: 10.3390/cancers13040624] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/11/2021] [Revised: 01/30/2021] [Accepted: 02/01/2021] [Indexed: 02/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Simple Summary Tumor suppressor 53 (p53) is a multifunctional protein that regulates cell cycle, DNA repair, apoptosis and metabolic pathways. In colorectal cancer (CRC), mutations of the gene occur in 60% of patients and are associated with a more aggressive tumor phenotype and resistance to anti-cancer therapy. In addition, inhibitor of apoptosis (IAP) proteins are distinguished biomarkers overexpressed in CRC that impact on a diverse set of signaling pathways associated with the regulation of apoptosis/autophagy, cell migration, cell cycle and DNA damage response. As these mechanisms are further firmly controlled by p53, a transcriptional and post-translational regulation of IAPs by p53 is expected to occur in cancer cells. Here, we aim to review the molecular regulatory mechanisms between IAPs and p53 and discuss the therapeutic potential of targeting their interrelationship by multimodal treatment options. Abstract Despite recent advances in the treatment of colorectal cancer (CRC), patient’s individual response and clinical follow-up vary considerably with tumor intrinsic factors to contribute to an enhanced malignancy and therapy resistance. Among these markers, upregulation of members of the inhibitor of apoptosis protein (IAP) family effects on tumorigenesis and radiation- and chemo-resistance by multiple pathways, covering a hampered induction of apoptosis/autophagy, regulation of cell cycle progression and DNA damage response. These mechanisms are tightly controlled by the tumor suppressor p53 and thus transcriptional and post-translational regulation of IAPs by p53 is expected to occur in malignant cells. By this, cellular IAP1/2, X-linked IAP, Survivin, BRUCE and LIVIN expression/activity, as well as their intracellular localization is controlled by p53 in a direct or indirect manner via modulating a multitude of mechanisms. These cover, among others, transcriptional repression and the signal transducer and activator of transcription (STAT)3 pathway. In addition, p53 mutations contribute to deregulated IAP expression and resistance to therapy. This review aims at highlighting the mechanistic and clinical importance of IAP regulation by p53 in CRC and describing potential therapeutic strategies based on this interrelationship.
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Plaza-Díaz J, Álvarez-Mercado AI, Robles-Sánchez C, Navarro-Oliveros M, Morón-Calvente V, Toribio-Castelló S, Sáez-Lara MJ, MacKenzie A, Fontana L, Abadía-Molina F. NAIP expression increases in a rat model of liver mass restoration. J Mol Histol 2021; 52:113-123. [PMID: 33237375 DOI: 10.1007/s10735-020-09928-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/28/2020] [Accepted: 11/13/2020] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
The neuronal apoptosis inhibitory protein (NAIP) is a constituent of the NLRC4 inflammasome, which plays a key role in innate immunity, and an antiapoptotic protein. Recently, we reported the previously undescribed role of NAIP in cell division. The liver is one of the body's most actively regenerative organs. Given the novel mitotic role of NAIP, we examined its expression in hepatic mass restoration. The major liver lobe of Wistar rats was removed, and samples from both newly formed liver tissue, assessed by positive Ki67 immunostaining, and the remnant, intact liver lobes from hepatectomized rats were taken 3 and 7 days after surgery. Naip5 and Naip6 mRNA levels were significantly higher in regenerating hepatic tissue than in intact liver lobe tissue, and this increase was also observed at the protein level. Naip5 and Naip6 mRNA in situ hybridization showed that this increase occurred in the hepatic parenchyma. The histology of the regenerated liver tissue was normal, with the exception of a noticeable deficiency of hepatic lobule central veins. The results of this study suggest the involvement of NAIP in liver mass restoration following partial hepatectomy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julio Plaza-Díaz
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology II, School of Pharmacy, University of Granada, 18071, Granada, Spain
- Institute of Nutrition and Food Technology "José Mataix", Biomedical Research Center, Avda. del Conocimiento S/N, Armilla, 18016, Granada, Spain
- Instituto de Investigación Biosanitaria Ibs.GRANADA, Avda. de Madrid 15, 18012, Granada, Spain
- Children's Hospital of Eastern Ontario Research Institute, Ottawa, ON, K1H 8L1, Canada
| | - Ana I Álvarez-Mercado
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology II, School of Pharmacy, University of Granada, 18071, Granada, Spain
- Institute of Nutrition and Food Technology "José Mataix", Biomedical Research Center, Avda. del Conocimiento S/N, Armilla, 18016, Granada, Spain
- Instituto de Investigación Biosanitaria Ibs.GRANADA, Avda. de Madrid 15, 18012, Granada, Spain
| | - Cándido Robles-Sánchez
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology II, School of Pharmacy, University of Granada, 18071, Granada, Spain
- Institute of Nutrition and Food Technology "José Mataix", Biomedical Research Center, Avda. del Conocimiento S/N, Armilla, 18016, Granada, Spain
| | - Miguel Navarro-Oliveros
- Instituto de Investigación Biosanitaria Ibs.GRANADA, Avda. de Madrid 15, 18012, Granada, Spain
| | - Virginia Morón-Calvente
- Department of Diabetes. Immunology, Diabetes & Metabolism Research Institute, Beckman Research Institute, City of Hope, Duarte, CA, 91010, USA
| | - Sofía Toribio-Castelló
- IBSAL, IBMCC, University of Salamanca-CSIC, Cancer Research Center, 37007, Salamanca, Spain
| | - María José Sáez-Lara
- Institute of Nutrition and Food Technology "José Mataix", Biomedical Research Center, Avda. del Conocimiento S/N, Armilla, 18016, Granada, Spain
- Instituto de Investigación Biosanitaria Ibs.GRANADA, Avda. de Madrid 15, 18012, Granada, Spain
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology I, School of Sciences, University of Granada, 18071, Granada, Spain
| | - Alex MacKenzie
- Children's Hospital of Eastern Ontario Research Institute, Ottawa, ON, K1H 8L1, Canada
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, ON, K1H 8L1, Canada
| | - Luis Fontana
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology II, School of Pharmacy, University of Granada, 18071, Granada, Spain
- Institute of Nutrition and Food Technology "José Mataix", Biomedical Research Center, Avda. del Conocimiento S/N, Armilla, 18016, Granada, Spain
- Instituto de Investigación Biosanitaria Ibs.GRANADA, Avda. de Madrid 15, 18012, Granada, Spain
| | - Francisco Abadía-Molina
- Institute of Nutrition and Food Technology "José Mataix", Biomedical Research Center, Avda. del Conocimiento S/N, Armilla, 18016, Granada, Spain.
- Department of Cell Biology, School of Sciences, University of Granada, 18071, Granada, Spain.
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Chatoui H, Chazal G, El Hiba O, Aziz F, Gamrani H. Long term osmotic stress exposure outcomes on rat dopaminergic innervations and the associated motor behavior. Saudi J Biol Sci 2020; 27:210-213. [PMID: 31889838 PMCID: PMC6933151 DOI: 10.1016/j.sjbs.2019.08.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/27/2018] [Revised: 07/29/2019] [Accepted: 08/01/2019] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
The osmotic stress is a powerful stimulus that elicits profound peripheral and central disturbances. In the mammalian brain, osmotic stress has been associated to several glial and neuronal changes. The lack of data regarding the impact on the dopaminergic system and locomotion led us to investigate the effect of prolonged water deprivation in rat on the midbrain dopaminergic system and locomotor performance by dehydrating rats for one and two weeks. Locomotor activity and tyrosine hydroxylase (TH) expression were assessed using the open field test and immunohistochemistry respectively. Water deprivation was accompanied with a significant increment of TH expression within substantia nigra compacta (SNc) and ventral tegmental area (VTA) gradually as the duration of dehydration increases. While locomotor activity showed the inverse tendency manifested by a drop of crossed boxes number following one and two weeks of water deprivation. Our data suggest a substantial implication of midbrain dopaminergic system in the central response to the osmotic stimuli accompanied with locomotor deficiencies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hicham Chatoui
- Equipe de Neurosciences, Pharmacologie et Environnement, Faculté des Sciences Semlalia, Université Cadi Ayyad, Marrakech, Morocco.,Université Privée de Marrakech (UPM), Marrakesh, Morocco
| | - Geneviève Chazal
- INSERM Unité 901, INMED Marseille, France.,Aix-Marseille Université, UMR S901, Marseille, France
| | - Omar El Hiba
- Equipe de Neurosciences, Pharmacologie et Environnement, Faculté des Sciences Semlalia, Université Cadi Ayyad, Marrakech, Morocco.,Nutrition and Food Sciences laboratory, faculty of Sciences, Chouaib Doukkali University El Jadida, Route Ben Maachou, B.P. 20, Avenue des Facultés, El Jadida, Morocco
| | - Faissal Aziz
- National Centre for Research and Study on Water and Energy (CNEREE), University Cadi Ayyad, Marrakech, Morocco.,Laboratory of Hydrobiology, Ecotoxicology, Sanitation and Global Change (LHEAC, URAC33), Faculty of Sciences Semlalia, Morocco
| | - Halima Gamrani
- Equipe de Neurosciences, Pharmacologie et Environnement, Faculté des Sciences Semlalia, Université Cadi Ayyad, Marrakech, Morocco
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Zhu H, Li Y, Liu Y, Han B. Bivalent SMAC Mimetics for Treating Cancer by Antagonizing Inhibitor of Apoptosis Proteins. ChemMedChem 2019; 14:1951-1962. [DOI: 10.1002/cmdc.201900410] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/10/2019] [Revised: 10/10/2019] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Hongping Zhu
- State Key Laboratory of Southwestern Chinese Medicine Resources, School of PharmacyChengdu University of Traditional Chinese Medicine 1166 Liutai Avenue Chengdu 611137 China
- Antibiotics Research and Re-evaluation Key Laboratory of Sichuan Province, Sichuan Industrial Institute of AntibioticsChengdu University 168 Huaguan Road Chengdu 610052 China
| | - Yi Li
- Antibiotics Research and Re-evaluation Key Laboratory of Sichuan Province, Sichuan Industrial Institute of AntibioticsChengdu University 168 Huaguan Road Chengdu 610052 China
| | - Yue Liu
- Antibiotics Research and Re-evaluation Key Laboratory of Sichuan Province, Sichuan Industrial Institute of AntibioticsChengdu University 168 Huaguan Road Chengdu 610052 China
| | - Bo Han
- State Key Laboratory of Southwestern Chinese Medicine Resources, School of PharmacyChengdu University of Traditional Chinese Medicine 1166 Liutai Avenue Chengdu 611137 China
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Neuronal apoptosis inhibitory protein (NAIP) localizes to the cytokinetic machinery during cell division. Sci Rep 2017; 7:39981. [PMID: 28059125 PMCID: PMC5216396 DOI: 10.1038/srep39981] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/14/2016] [Accepted: 11/30/2016] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
The neuronal apoptosis inhibitory protein (NAIP) is a constituent of the inflammasome and a key component of the innate immune system. Here we use immunofluorescence to position NAIP within the cytokinetic apparatus, contiguous to chromosomal passenger complex (CPC), Centralspindlin, PRC1 and KIF4A. During metaphase, NAIP accumulates in the mitotic spindle poles and is shown in spindle microtubules; in anaphase NAIP is detected in the middle of the central spindle. At the end of cytokinesis, NAIP is localized in the outlying region of the stem body, the center of the intercellular bridge formed between daughter cells prior to cellular abscission. We also describe the sustained presence of NAIP mRNA and protein throughout the cell cycle with a significant increase observed in the G2/M phase. Consistent with a role for NAIP in cytokinesis, NAIP overexpression in HeLa cells promotes the acquisition of a multinuclear phenotype. Conversely, NAIP siRNA gene silencing results in an apoptotic lethal phenotype. Our confocal and super resolution stimulated-emission-depletion (STED) examination of mammalian cell cytokinesis demonstrate a potential new role for NAIP in addition to anti-apoptotic and innate immunology functions.
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Choong CJ, Mochizuki H. Gene therapy targeting mitochondrial pathway in Parkinson's disease. J Neural Transm (Vienna) 2016; 124:193-207. [PMID: 27638713 DOI: 10.1007/s00702-016-1616-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/28/2016] [Accepted: 08/31/2016] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
Abstract
Parkinson's disease (PD) presents a relative selective localization of pathology to substantia nigra and well-defined motor symptoms caused by dopaminergic degeneration that makes it an ideal target for gene therapy. Parallel progress in viral vector systems enables the delivery of therapeutic genes directly into brain with reasonable safety along with sustained transgene expression. To date, gene therapy for PD that has reached clinical trial evaluation is mainly based on symptomatic approach that involves enzyme replacement strategy and restorative approach that depends on the addition of neurotrophic factors. Mitochondrial dysregulation, such as reduced complex I activity, increased mitochondria-derived reactive oxygen species (ROS) production, ROS-mediated mitochondrial DNA damage, bioenergetic failure, and perturbation of mitochondrial dynamics and mitophagy, has long been implicated in the pathogenesis of PD. Many of mutated genes linked to familial forms of PD affect these mitochondrial features. In this review, we discuss the recent progress that has been made in preclinical development of gene therapy targeting the mitochondrial pathway as disease modifying approach for PD. This review focuses on the potential therapeutic efficacy of candidate genes, including Parkin, PINK1, alpha synuclein, PGC-1 alpha, and anti-apoptotic molecules.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chi-Jing Choong
- Department of Neurology, Graduate School of Medicine, Osaka University, Yamadaoka 2-2, Suita, Osaka, 565-0871, Japan
| | - Hideki Mochizuki
- Department of Neurology, Graduate School of Medicine, Osaka University, Yamadaoka 2-2, Suita, Osaka, 565-0871, Japan.
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Landers MR, Kinney JW, van Breukelen F. Forced exercise before or after induction of 6-OHDA-mediated nigrostriatal insult does not mitigate behavioral asymmetry in a hemiparkinsonian rat model. Brain Res 2013; 1543:263-70. [PMID: 24239657 DOI: 10.1016/j.brainres.2013.10.054] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/09/2013] [Revised: 10/28/2013] [Accepted: 10/29/2013] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
Studies on exercise before and after toxin-induced hemiparkinsonism have reported promising findings in terms of amelioration of motor asymmetry in adult, 6-hydroxydopamine (6-OHDA) rats. However, recent studies have had more mixed results. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to further explore the notion of exercise, in particular forced exercise, as a potential neuroprotective therapy when implemented before and after 6-OHDA hemiparkinsonism. To explore this, two experiments were conducted: Experiment 1 - exercise before a 6-OHDA lesion; and, Experiment 2 - exercise after a 6-OHDA lesion. In Experiment 1, rats were randomly assigned into one of the two 4-week experimental conditions, a forced exercise condition and a non-exercise control condition. Then, after the experimental conditions rats were injected with 6-OHDA into the right medial forebrain bundle. In Experiment 2, rats were first injected with 6-OHDA and were then randomly assigned into one of the two 4-week experimental groups, a forced exercise group and a non-exercise control group. Outcomes in both experiments did not show any differences in terms of motor behavioral tests (i.e., apomorphine rotations, forelimb placement asymmetry, exploratory rearing) between the forced exercise and sedentary control groups. Based on our results and in light of the body of literature, it is possible that the stress of shock-motivated forced running utilized in this study may have canceled beneficial behavioral effects. Additionally, it is possible that the one-week delay in the forced exercise protocol implementation in Experiment 2 may have prevented behavioral rescue.
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Affiliation(s)
- Merrill R Landers
- Department of Physical Therapy, University of Nevada, Las Vegas, 4505 Maryland Parkway, Box 453029, Las Vegas, NV 89154, USA.
| | - Jefferson W Kinney
- Assistant Professor, Department of Psychology, University of Nevada, Las Vegas, 4505 Maryland Parkway, Box 455030, Las Vegas, NV 89154, USA.
| | - Frank van Breukelen
- Associate Professor, School of Life Sciences, University of Nevada, Las Vegas, 4505 Maryland Parkway, Box 454004, Las Vegas, NV 89154, USA.
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Landin Malt A, Georges A, Silber J, Zider A, Flagiello D. Interaction with the Yes-associated protein (YAP) allows TEAD1 to positively regulate NAIP expression. FEBS Lett 2013; 587:3216-23. [DOI: 10.1016/j.febslet.2013.08.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/30/2013] [Revised: 07/26/2013] [Accepted: 08/13/2013] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
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Wang K, Lin B. Inhibitor of apoptosis proteins (IAPs) as regulatory factors of hepatic apoptosis. Cell Signal 2013; 25:1970-80. [PMID: 23770286 DOI: 10.1016/j.cellsig.2013.06.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/03/2013] [Revised: 05/13/2013] [Accepted: 06/04/2013] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
IAPs are a group of regulatory proteins that are structurally related. Their conserved homologues have been identified in various organisms. In human, eight IAP members have been recognized based on baculoviral IAP repeat (BIR) domains. IAPs are key regulators of apoptosis, cytokinesis and signal transduction. The antiapoptotic property of IAPs depends on their professional role for caspases. IAPs are functionally non-equivalent and regulate effector caspases through distinct mechanisms. IAPs impede apoptotic process via membrane receptor-dependent (extrinsic) cascade and mitochondrial dependent (intrinsic) pathway. IAP-mediated apoptosis affects the progression of liver diseases. Therapeutic options of liver diseases may depend on the understanding toward mechanisms of the IAP-mediated apoptosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kewei Wang
- Departments of Surgery, University of Illinois College of Medicine at Peoria, Peoria, IL 61605, USA.
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Kanno T, Tanaka K, Yanagisawa Y, Yasutake K, Hadano S, Yoshii F, Hirayama N, Ikeda JE. A novel small molecule, N-(4-(2-pyridyl)(1,3-thiazol-2-yl))-2-(2,4,6-trimethylphenoxy) acetamide, selectively protects against oxidative stress-induced cell death by activating the Nrf2-ARE pathway: therapeutic implications for ALS. Free Radic Biol Med 2012; 53:2028-42. [PMID: 23000247 DOI: 10.1016/j.freeradbiomed.2012.09.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/30/2012] [Revised: 08/04/2012] [Accepted: 09/13/2012] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
Antioxidant defense is crucial in restoring cellular redox homeostasis. Recent findings have suggested that oxidative stress plays pivotal roles in the pathogenesis of many neurodegenerative diseases. Thus, an anti-oxidative stress remedy might be a promising means for the treatment of such disorders. In this study, we employed a novel ligand-based virtual screening system and identified a novel small molecule, N-(4-(2-pyridyl)(1,3-thiazol-2-yl))-2-(2,4,6-trimethylphenoxy) acetamide (CPN-9), which selectively suppressed oxidative stress-induced cell death in a cell-type-independent manner. CPN-9 upregulates NF-E2-related factor 2 (Nrf2), a key transcriptional regulator of the expression of phase II detoxification enzymes and antioxidant proteins, and Nrf2-regulated factors such as heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1), NAD(P)H quinone oxidoreductase 1 (NQO1), and glutamate-cysteine ligase modifier subunit (GCLM). The CPN-9-mediated upregulation of HO-1, NQO1, and GCLM was abolished by Nrf2 knockdown. Moreover, the antioxidant N-acetylcysteine reduced the protective effect of CPN-9 against oxidative stress-induced cell death with concomitant diminishing of Nrf2 nuclear translocation. These results indicate that CPN-9 exerts its activity via the reactive oxygen species-dependent activation of the Nrf2 signaling pathway in cultured cells. It is noteworthy that the postonset systemic administration of CPN-9 to a transgenic ALS mouse model carrying the H46R mutation in the human Cu/Zn superoxide dismutase (SOD1) gene sustained motor functions and delayed disease progression after onset. Collectively, CPN-9 is a novel Nrf2 activator and a neuroprotective candidate for the treatment of neurodegenerative diseases, including ALS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Takuya Kanno
- NGP Biomedical Research Institute, Neugen Pharma Inc., Kitasato University School of Medicine, Sagamihara, Kanagawa 252-0374, Japan
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Neurotoxin-based models of Parkinson's disease. Neuroscience 2012; 211:51-76. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2011.10.057] [Citation(s) in RCA: 360] [Impact Index Per Article: 30.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/08/2011] [Revised: 10/27/2011] [Accepted: 10/28/2011] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
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Doo AR, Kim SN, Kim ST, Park JY, Chung SH, Choe BY, Chae Y, Lee H, Yin CS, Park HJ. Bee venom protects SH-SY5Y human neuroblastoma cells from 1-methyl-4-phenylpyridinium-induced apoptotic cell death. Brain Res 2012; 1429:106-15. [DOI: 10.1016/j.brainres.2011.10.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/29/2011] [Revised: 09/23/2011] [Accepted: 10/01/2011] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
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Role of positive selection in functional divergence of mammalian neuronal apoptosis inhibitor proteins during evolution. J Biomed Biotechnol 2011; 2011:809765. [PMID: 22131819 PMCID: PMC3216670 DOI: 10.1155/2011/809765] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/16/2011] [Revised: 06/28/2011] [Accepted: 08/26/2011] [Indexed: 01/22/2023] Open
Abstract
Neuronal apoptosis inhibitor proteins (NAIPs) are members of Nod-like receptor (NLR) protein family. Recent research demostrated that some NAIP genes were strongly associated with both innate immunity and many inflammatory diseases in humans. However, no similar phenomena have been reported in other mammals. Furthermore, some NAIP genes have undergone pseudogenization or have been lost during the evolution of some higher mammals. We therefore aimed to determine if functional divergence had occurred, and if natural selection had played an important role in the evolution of these genes. The results showed that NAIP genes have undergone pseudogenization and functional divergence, driven by positive selection. Positive selection has also influenced NAIP protein structure, resulting in further functional divergence.
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Mason DR, Beck PL, Muruve DA. Nucleotide-binding oligomerization domain-like receptors and inflammasomes in the pathogenesis of non-microbial inflammation and diseases. J Innate Immun 2011; 4:16-30. [PMID: 22067846 DOI: 10.1159/000334247] [Citation(s) in RCA: 72] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/23/2011] [Accepted: 10/10/2011] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
The nucleotide-binding oligomerization domain (NOD)-like receptor (NLR) or nucleotide-binding domain leucine-rich repeat-containing family of genes plays an important role in the development of innate immune responses. Some family members are known to form multiprotein complexes known as inflammasomes that regulate the processing and secretion of proinflammatory mediators, such as interleukin-1β and interleukin-18. Activity of the inflammasome is triggered not only by microbial infection, but also by a wide range of both exogenous and endogenous noninfectious stimuli. Consequently, the dysregulation of inflammasome activity is associated with numerous proinflammatory, non-microbial human diseases. The discovery of NLRP3 gene mutations in autoinflammatory diseases such as Muckle-Wells syndrome has led to the association of NLRs in the pathogenesis of many non-microbial diseases that include arthritis, neurodegenerative disorders, metabolic disorders (obesity and diabetes), cardiovascular disease (atherosclerosis, myocardial infarction), inflammatory bowel disease, kidney disease and hypersensitivity dermatitis. A number of NLRs are also associated with human disease in the absence of inflammasome activity, suggesting additional roles for NLRs in the regulation of inflammation and disease. This review serves to provide a summary of NLR-associated diseases and, where possible, the mechanisms behind the associations.
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Affiliation(s)
- D Randal Mason
- Department of Medicine, Immunology Research Group and the Institute of Infection, Immunity and Inflammation, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alta., Canada
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Dissociation of progressive dopaminergic neuronal death and behavioral impairments by Bax deletion in a mouse model of Parkinson's diseases. PLoS One 2011; 6:e25346. [PMID: 22043283 PMCID: PMC3197195 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0025346] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/27/2011] [Accepted: 09/01/2011] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Parkinson's disease (PD) is a common, late-onset movement disorder with selective degeneration of dopaminergic (DA) neurons in the substantia nigra (SN). Although the neurotoxin 6-hydroxydopamine (6-OHDA) has been used to induce progressive degeneration of DA neurons in various animal models of PD, the precise molecular pathway and the impact of anti-apoptotic treatment on this neurodegeneration are less understood. Following a striatal injection of 6-OHDA, we observed atrophy and progressive death of DA neurons in wild-type mice. These degenerating DA neurons never exhibited signs of apoptosis (i.e., caspase-3 activation and cytoplasmic release of cytochrome C), but rather show nuclear translocation of apoptosis-inducing factor (AIF), a hallmark of regulated necrosis. However, mice with genetic deletion of the proapoptotic gene Bax (Bax-KO) exhibited a complete absence of 6-OHDA-induced DA neuron death and nuclear translocation of AIF, indicating that 6-OHDA-induced DA neuronal death is mediated by Bax-dependent AIF activation. On the other hand, DA neurons that survived in Bax-KO mice exhibited marked neuronal atrophy, without significant improvement of PD-related behavioral deficits. These findings suggest that anti-apoptotic therapy may not be sufficient for PD treatment, and the prevention of Bax-independent neuronal atrophy may be an important therapeutic target.
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Karimpour S, Davoodi J, Ghahremani MH. Integrity of ATP binding site is essential for effective inhibition of the intrinsic apoptosis pathway by NAIP. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2011; 407:158-62. [PMID: 21371431 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbrc.2011.02.130] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/20/2011] [Accepted: 02/25/2011] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
The importance of the ATP binding site of human Neuronal Apoptosis Inhibitory Protein (NAIP) on its ability in prevention of intrinsic apoptotic pathway was investigated. Thus, ATP binding lysine 476 of NAIP, which is located at the Nucleotide Binding Oligomerization Domain (NOD) was mutated to threonine and the effect of this mutation on autoproteolysis of procaspase-9 and the cleavage of procaspase-3 by apoptosome was investigated. Formation of apoptosome was induced by the addition of cytochrome c and dATP to lysates of HeLa cells transfected with pcDNA-NAIP or pcDNA-NAIP (K476T). Full length wild type NAIP prevented the cleavage of both procaspase-9 to caspase-9 and procaspase-3 to caspase-3. However, K476T variant of NAIP did not block autocleavage of procaspase-9 efficiently. Furthermore, cleavage pattern of procaspase-9 was altered in the presence of mutant NAIP. Interestingly no effect on the procaspase-3 cleavage by apoptosome was observed. The presence of NOD domain by itself had no effect on autocleavage of procaspase-9 yet slightly reduced the cleavage of procaspase-3 by apoptosome. Pull down experiment showed direct interaction of the NOD domain of NAIP with the CARD-NOD domain of Apoptotic Protease Activating Factor 1 (APAF-1). The physical association of these domains was confirmed by pull-down assays. These observations taken with previous findings indicate that the integrity of the NOD domain is essential for effective inhibition of procaspase-9 and procaspase-3 cleavage by the NAIP protein.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarvenaz Karimpour
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran 1417653761, Iran
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Effects of calpain inhibition on dopaminergic markers and motor function following intrastriatal 6-hydroxydopamine administration in rats. Neuroscience 2008; 158:558-69. [PMID: 19007862 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2008.10.023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/11/2008] [Revised: 10/15/2008] [Accepted: 10/18/2008] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
The neurotoxin 6-hydroxydopamine has been widely used to model aspects of Parkinson's disease in rodents, but the mechanisms underlying toxin-induced dopaminergic degeneration and functional impairment have not been fully elucidated. The main aim of the present study was to assess a possible role for calpains in neurochemical and behavioral deficits following unilateral infusion of intrastriatal 6-hydroxydopamine in adult rats. Toxin administration produced a profound dopaminergic denervation, as indicated by a 90-95% reduction in dopamine transporter radiolabeling measured in the caudate-putamen at 2 weeks post-lesion. Treatment with 6-hydroxydopamine also resulted in calpain activation in both caudate-putamen and substantia nigra, as measured by the appearance of calpain-specific spectrin breakdown products. Calpain activation peaked at 24 h after 6-hydroxydopamine infusion and remained elevated at later time points. In contrast, caspase-3-mediated spectrin cleavage subsided within 48 h in both brain areas. In a subsequent experiment, calpain inhibition was achieved by intrastriatal infusion of an adenovirus expressing the endogenous calpain inhibitor, calpastatin. Calpastatin delivery abolished the lesion-induced calpain-mediated spectrin cleavage and alleviated forelimb asymmetries resulting from unilateral intrastriatal 6-hydroxydopamine. Unexpectedly, dopamine transporter and tyrosine hydroxylase labeling revealed significant neuroprotection, not in the nigrostriatal pathway but rather in the ventral tegmental area. These findings support a role for calpain activation in 6-hydroxydopamine-induced degeneration of dopaminergic neurons. However, after near-total dopaminergic depletion, the primary benefit of calpain inhibition may not occur within the nigrostriatal dopaminergic pathway itself.
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18
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Hebb ALO, Moore CS, Bhan V, Campbell T, Fisk JD, Robertson HA, Thorne M, Lacasse E, Holcik M, Gillard J, Crocker SJ, Robertson GS. Expression of the inhibitor of apoptosis protein family in multiple sclerosis reveals a potential immunomodulatory role during autoimmune mediated demyelination. Mult Scler 2008; 14:577-94. [DOI: 10.1177/1352458507087468] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
A failure of autoreactive T cells to undergo apoptosis may contribute to the pathogenesis of multiple sclerosis (MS). The role of the inhibitor of apoptosis (IAP) family of anti-apoptotic proteins such as X-linked IAP (XIAP), human inhibitor of apoptosis-1 (HIAP-1), human inhibitor of apoptosis-2 (HIAP-2), neuronal apoptosis inhibitory protein (NAIP) and Survivin in relapsing–remitting, secondary-progressive, primary-progressive or benign forms of MS is unclear. We report here that expression of the IAP family of genes in peripheral blood samples and brain tissues from MS cases support a role for differential regulation of these potent anti-apoptotic proteins in the pathology of MS. XIAP mRNA and protein levels were elevated in peripheral blood mononuclear cells from patients with active disease relative to normal subjects. In patients with active MS, HIAP-1 and HIAP-2 mRNA levels were elevated in resting T cells while NAIP mRNA was increased in whole blood. In post-mortem MS brain tissue, XIAP and HIAP-1 in myelin lesions were co-localized with microglia and T cells, respectively. Only in primary-progressive patients was Survivin expression elevated suggestive of a distinct pathological basis for this subtype of MS. Taken together, these results suggest that patterns of inhibitor of apoptosis expression in immune cells may have value in distinguishing between MS subtypes and offer insight into the mechanisms responsible for their distinct clinical courses.
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Affiliation(s)
- ALO Hebb
- Department of Pharmacology, Dalhousie University, Halifax, NS, B3H 1X5, Canada
| | - CS Moore
- Department of Pharmacology, Dalhousie University, Halifax, NS, B3H 1X5, Canada
| | - V Bhan
- Department of Medicine (Neurology), Dalhousie University, Halifax, NS, B3H 1V7, Canada
| | - T Campbell
- Department of Medicine (Neurology), Dalhousie University, Halifax, NS, B3H 1V7, Canada
| | - JD Fisk
- Department of Psychiatry, Dalhousie University, Halifax, NS, B3H 2E2, Canada; Department of Psychology, QEII Health Sciences Centre, Halifax, NS, B3H 2E2, Canada
| | - HA Robertson
- Department of Pharmacology, Dalhousie University, Halifax, NS, B3H 1X5, Canada
| | - M Thorne
- Department of Pharmacology, Dalhousie University, Halifax, NS, B3H 1X5, Canada
| | - E Lacasse
- Aegera Therapeutics Inc., Nun’s Island (Montreal), PQ, H3E 1A8, Canada
| | - M Holcik
- Apoptosis Research Centre, Children's Hospital of Eastern Ontario, Ottawa, Ontario, KIH 8L1, Canada
| | - J Gillard
- Aegera Therapeutics Inc., Nun’s Island (Montreal), PQ, H3E 1A8, Canada
| | - SJ Crocker
- Molecular and Integrative Neuroscience Department, the Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, CA, 92037, USA
| | - GS Robertson
- Department of Pharmacology, Dalhousie University, Halifax, NS, B3H 1X5, Canada; Department of Psychiatry, Dalhousie University, Halifax, NS, B3H 2E2, Canada
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19
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Ebert AD, Hann HJ, Bohn MC. Progressive degeneration of dopamine neurons in 6-hydroxydopamine rat model of parkinson's disease does not involve activation of caspase-9 and caspase-3. J Neurosci Res 2008; 86:317-25. [PMID: 17787016 DOI: 10.1002/jnr.21480] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
Abstract
6-Hydroxydopamine (6-OHDA), a neurotoxin that causes the death of dopamine (DA) neurons, is commonly used to produce experimental models of Parkinson's disease (PD) in rodents. In the rat model of PD first described by Sauer and Oertel, DA neurons progressively die over several weeks following a striatal injection of 6-OHDA. It is generally assumed that DA neurons die through apoptosis after exposure to 6-OHDA, but data supporting activation of a caspase enzymatic cascade are lacking. In this study, we sought to determine if caspases involved in the intrinsic apoptotic cascade play a role in the initial stages of 6-OHDA-induced death of DA neurons in the progressively lesioned rat model of PD. We found that injection of 6-OHDA into adult rat striatum did not activate caspase-9 or caspase-3 or increase levels of caspase-dependent cleavage products in the substantia nigra at various survival times up to 7 days after the lesion, even though this paradigm produced DA neuronal loss. These data suggest that in the adult rat brain DA neurons whose terminals are challenged with 6-OHDA do not die through a classical caspase-dependent apoptotic mechanism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Allison D Ebert
- Department of Pediatrics, Neurobiology Program, Children's Memorial Research Center, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, Chicago, Illinois 60614-4314, USA
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20
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Porras G, Bezard E. Preclinical development of gene therapy for Parkinson's disease. Exp Neurol 2008; 209:72-81. [PMID: 17904121 DOI: 10.1016/j.expneurol.2007.08.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/21/2007] [Revised: 07/12/2007] [Accepted: 08/07/2007] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Multiple targets and pathways may be amenable to the development of gene therapy approaches for Parkinson's disease. This article discusses some of the cellular and brain circuit pathways relevant to Parkinson's disease that would be clinically amenable to gene therapy. Approaches could be classified according to two main categories, i.e. symptomatic vs. neuroprotective/neurorestorative strategies. Examples of the different possibilities currently in development are given and feature both dopaminergic and non-dopaminergic symptomatic treatments of parkinsonian symptoms and/or L-DOPA-induced side effects, anti-apoptotic neuroprotective strategies and growth-factor delivery for neuroprotection/neurorestoration. While gene therapy has been mostly used so far for enhancing the expression of the target gene, the use of dominant negative or siRNA opens new possibilities. This, combined with the key feature of gene delivery that offers access to intracellular signalling pathways, is likely to further expand the number of proposed targets to be studied.
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Affiliation(s)
- Grégory Porras
- CNRS UMR 5227, Universite Victor Segalen-Bordeaux 2, 33076, Bordeaux, France
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21
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Yamazaki M, Chiba K, Satoh K. Neuro2a Cell Death Induced by 6-Hydroxydopamine is Attenuated by Genipin. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2008. [DOI: 10.1248/jhs.54.638] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Matsumi Yamazaki
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Hokuriku University
| | - Kenzo Chiba
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Hokuriku University
- Organization for Frontier Research in Preventive Pharmaceutical Sciences, Hokuriku University
| | - Keiko Satoh
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Hokuriku University
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22
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Lowenstein PR, Kroeger K, Castro MG. Immunology of neurological gene therapy: how T cells modulate viral vector-mediated therapeutic transgene expression through immunological synapses. Neurotherapeutics 2007; 4:715-24. [PMID: 17920552 PMCID: PMC2268648 DOI: 10.1016/j.nurt.2007.07.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Gene therapy has been shown to be a powerful new approach to the treatment of brain diseases. Brain neurodegenerations, brain tumors, inherited brain diseases, and autoimmune disorders are currently recognized as proper targets for gene therapeutics. Advances in the development of viral vectors (especially improvements in their immune profiles), the capacity to regulate transgene expression, and identification of appropriate therapeutic constructs have made the transition into clinical trials for gene therapy possible. One particular remaining challenge is the immune response that could be raised against either the viral vectors themselves or any regulatory or therapeutic transgenes. Because of the structure of brain immune responses, viral gene transfer into the brain can, under certain circumstances, be invisible to the systemic immune response and thus not generate a deleterious immune attack. If, however, the systemic immune system is primed against any vector antigen, the systemic immune response eliminates transgene expression and thus curtails the therapeutic efficacy of gene therapy. Mechanistic studies of brain immune responses indicate that the adaptive arm of the immune system may indeed be able to kill transduced cells. To move neurological gene therapy into the clinic in an effective and safe manner, these are the developments needed: novel viral vectors that either display a reduced capacity to stimulate an adaptive immune response or become invisible to the immune system after the delivery of the vector genome to the nucleus of transduced cells, and ways either to steer the immune response away from cytotoxic responses or to induce tolerance to gene therapy products.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pedro R Lowenstein
- Board of Governors' Gene Therapeutics Research Institute, Cedars-Sinai Medical Center, David Geffen School of Medicine, University of California Los Angeles, California 90048, USA.
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23
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Christie LA, Su JH, Tu CH, Dick MC, Zhou J, Cotman CW. Differential regulation of inhibitors of apoptosis proteins in Alzheimer's disease brains. Neurobiol Dis 2007; 26:165-73. [PMID: 17292615 PMCID: PMC2198925 DOI: 10.1016/j.nbd.2006.12.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/09/2006] [Revised: 12/07/2006] [Accepted: 12/09/2006] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Neuronal degeneration linked to apoptosis can be inhibited by a family of proteins known as inhibitors of apoptosis proteins (IAPs). We examined three members of the IAP family that are implicated in the regulation of neuronal death. We assessed NAIP, XIAP, and cIAP-2 protein levels in the entorhinal cortex of non-demented, cognitively impaired and Alzheimer's disease cases. Levels of paired helical filament-1 (PHF-1), a marker of neurofibrillary tangles, were assessed to determine their relationship to IAP levels. NAIP was decreased in AD cases compared to mildly impaired and unimpaired cases, and this decrease was associated with increased PHF-1 levels. Low NAIP levels were associated with higher Braak and Braak tangle stage and cognitive dysfunction. XIAP levels were higher in AD cases and cIAP-2 levels did not vary with clinical status. Our data suggest that decreased NAIP may place neurons at risk for the development of tangles and apoptosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lori-Ann Christie
- Institute for Brain Aging and Dementia, 1113 Gillespie Neuroscience Research Facility, University of California, Irvine, CA 92697, USA.
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24
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Garrity-Moses ME, Teng Q, Krudy C, Yang J, Federici T, Boulis NM. X-Linked inhibitor of apoptosis protein gene-based neuroprotection for the peripheral nervous system. Neurosurgery 2006; 59:172-82; discussion 172-82. [PMID: 16823314 DOI: 10.1227/01.neu.0000219237.69329.b7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVE The recently discovered X-linked inhibitor of apoptosis protein (XIAP) is among the most potent inhibitors of programmed cell death. In the current experiment, we examine the potential of adenoviral XIAP gene delivery to protect neurons of the peripheral nervous system using in vitro models of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) and diabetic neuropathy. METHODS XIAP complementary deoxyribonucleic acid was fused in frame with the green fluorescent protein sequence and cloned into a first generation adenoviral vector. The impact of XIAP gene expression on glutamate-induced apoptosis was measured in the neuronal SH-SY5Y cell line with immunohistochemistry for active caspase-3 and with cell density assays. Next, the effect of XIAP expressing neurons on the survival of uninfected neighboring neurons was measured. Finally, the impact of XIAP gene expression on glutamate-induced apoptosis was assessed in embryonic motor neuron and dorsal root ganglion cultures. RESULTS XIAP gene expression reduced the percentage of active caspase-3 positive SH-SY5Y neurons and preserved cell density after glutamate exposure. In heterogeneously infected cultures, cells infected with XIAP were protected, but uninfected neighboring cells were not. In primary E15 models, inhibition of proapoptotic effects was demonstrated after glutamate insult in motor neurons and glucose insult in dorsal root ganglion cells. CONCLUSION XIAP gene delivery through the neurosurgical delivery of viral vectors may provide a means for neuroprotection in ALS and diabetic neuropathy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mary E Garrity-Moses
- Cleveland Clinic Foundation, Lerner Research Institute, Department of Neuroscience and Center for Neurological Restoration, Cleveland, Ohio 44195, USA
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25
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Garrity-Moses ME, Teng Q, Krudy C, Yang J, Federici T, Boulis NM. XIAP GENE-BASED NEUROPROTECTIONFOR THE PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM. Neurosurgery 2006. [DOI: 10.1227/01.neu.0000243278.86222.88] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
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26
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Lu L, Neff F, Fischer DA, Henze C, Hirsch EC, Oertel WH, Schlegel J, Hartmann A. Regional vulnerability of mesencephalic dopaminergic neurons prone to degenerate in Parkinson's disease: a post-mortem study in human control subjects. Neurobiol Dis 2006; 23:409-21. [PMID: 16753304 DOI: 10.1016/j.nbd.2006.04.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/05/2006] [Revised: 03/27/2006] [Accepted: 04/02/2006] [Indexed: 10/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Parkinson's disease (PD) is characterized by loss of dopaminergic (DA) neurons in the human midbrain, which varies greatly among mesencephalic subregions. The genetic expression profiles of mesencephalic DA neurons particularly prone to degenerate during PD (nigrosome 1 within the substantia nigra pars compacta-SNpc) and those particularly resistant in the disease course (central grey substance-CGS) were compared in five control subjects by immuno-laser capture microdissection followed by RNA arbitrarily primed PCR. 8 ESTs of interest were selected for analysis by real time quantitative reverse transcription PCR. DA neurons in the CGS preferentially expressed implicated in cell survival (7 out of 8 genes selected), whereas SNpc DA neurons preferentially expressed one gene making them potentially susceptible to undergo cell death in PD. We propose that factors making CGS DA neurons more resistant may be helpful in protecting SNpc DA neurons against a pathological insult.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lixia Lu
- Department of Neurology, Philipps-Universität Marburg, Germany
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27
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Jacobs AH, Winkler A, Castro MG, Lowenstein P. Human gene therapy and imaging in neurological diseases. Eur J Nucl Med Mol Imaging 2006; 32 Suppl 2:S358-83. [PMID: 16328505 PMCID: PMC2902257 DOI: 10.1007/s00259-005-1960-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
Molecular imaging aims to assess non-invasively disease-specific biological and molecular processes in animal models and humans in vivo. Apart from precise anatomical localisation and quantification, the most intriguing advantage of such imaging is the opportunity it provides to investigate the time course (dynamics) of disease-specific molecular events in the intact organism. Further, molecular imaging can be used to address basic scientific questions, e.g. transcriptional regulation, signal transduction or protein/protein interaction, and will be essential in developing treatment strategies based on gene therapy. Most importantly, molecular imaging is a key technology in translational research, helping to develop experimental protocols which may later be applied to human patients. Over the past 20 years, imaging based on positron emission tomography (PET) and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) has been employed for the assessment and "phenotyping" of various neurological diseases, including cerebral ischaemia, neurodegeneration and brain gliomas. While in the past neuro-anatomical studies had to be performed post mortem, molecular imaging has ushered in the era of in vivo functional neuro-anatomy by allowing neuroscience to image structure, function, metabolism and molecular processes of the central nervous system in vivo in both health and disease. Recently, PET and MRI have been successfully utilised together in the non-invasive assessment of gene transfer and gene therapy in humans. To assess the efficiency of gene transfer, the same markers are being used in animals and humans, and have been applied for phenotyping human disease. Here, we review the imaging hallmarks of focal and disseminated neurological diseases, such as cerebral ischaemia, neurodegeneration and glioblastoma multiforme, as well as the attempts to translate gene therapy's experimental knowledge into clinical applications and the way in which this process is being promoted through the use of novel imaging approaches.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andreas H Jacobs
- Max Planck-Institute for Neurological Research, Center of Molecular Medicine (CMMC) and Department of Neurology, University of Cologne, Cologne, Germany.
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28
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Abstract
Motor neuron diseases (MND), such as amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) and spinal muscular atrophy (SMA), are progressive neurodegenerative diseases that share the common characteristic of upper and/or lower motor neuron degeneration. Therapeutic strategies for MND are designed to confer neuroprotection, using trophic factors, anti-apoptotic proteins, as well as antioxidants and anti-excitotoxicity agents. Although a large number of therapeutic clinical trials have been attempted, none has been shown satisfactory for MND at this time. A variety of strategies have emerged for motor neuron gene transfer. Application of these approaches has yielded therapeutic results in cell culture and animal models, including the SOD1 models of ALS. In this study we describe the gene-based treatment of MND in general, examining the potential viral vector candidates, gene delivery strategies, and main therapeutic approaches currently attempted. Finally, we discuss future directions and potential strategies for more effective motor neuron gene delivery and clinical translation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thais Federici
- Department of Neuroscience, Cleveland Clinic Foundation, NB2-126A, 9500 Euclid Avenue, Cleveland, Ohio 44195, USA
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29
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Crocker SJ, Hayley SP, Smith PD, Mount MP, Lamba WR, Callaghan SM, Slack RS, Park DS. Regulation of axotomy-induced dopaminergic neuron death and c-Jun phosphorylation by targeted inhibition of cdc42 or mixed lineage kinase. J Neurochem 2006; 96:489-99. [PMID: 16336220 DOI: 10.1111/j.1471-4159.2005.03568.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Mechanical transection of the nigrostriatal dopamine pathway at the medial forebrain bundle (MFB) results in the delayed degeneration of dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra pars compacta (SNpc). We have previously demonstrated that c-Jun activation is an obligate component of neuronal death in this model. Here we identified the small GTPase, cdc42, and mixed lineage kinases (MLKs) as upstream factors regulating neuronal loss and activation of c-Jun following MFB axotomy. Adenovirus-mediated expression of a dominant-negative form of cdc42 in nigral neurons blocked MFB axotomy-induced activation (phosphorylation) of MAP kinase kinase 4 (MKK4) and c-Jun, resulting in attenuation of SNpc neuronal death. Pharmacological inhibition of MLKs, MKK4-activating kinases, significantly reduced the phosphorylation of c-Jun and abrogated dopaminergic neuronal degeneration following MFB axotomy. Taken together, these findings suggest that death of nigral dopaminergic neurons following axotomy can be attenuated by targeting cell signaling events upstream of c-Jun N-terminal mitogen-activated protein kinase/c-Jun.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stephen J Crocker
- Neuroscience Research Institute, University of Ottawa and Ottawa Health Research Institute, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada
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30
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Schulz JB. Anti-apoptotic gene therapy in Parkinson's disease. JOURNAL OF NEURAL TRANSMISSION. SUPPLEMENTUM 2006:467-76. [PMID: 17017569 DOI: 10.1007/978-3-211-45295-0_70] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Abstract
Apoptosis, whether caspase-dependent or caspase-independent, has been implicated as one of the important mechanisms leading to the death of dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra of Parkinson's disease patients. Major advances of our understanding of apoptosis have been achieved in studies of 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine (MPTP) toxicity in mice and monkeys and 6-hydroxydopamine (6-OHDA) toxicity in rats and monkeys. The use of viral vectors to either express anti-apoptotic proteins or to downregulate pro-apoptotic proteins has the major advantage of addressing selective molecular targets, bypassing the blood-brain-barrier to specifically target the nigrostriatal pathway by their stereotaxic application and by the choice of the appropriate virus and promotor. Used thus far have been virus-mediated overexpression of inhibitor of apoptosis proteins, inhibitors of the c-jun-N-terminal kinase (JNK) pathway, inhibitors of calpains and dominant negative inhibitors of the protease activating factor (APAF)-1 and cdk5. Most studies implicate the endogenous, mitochondrial pathway in the apoptosis of dopaminergic neurons. The results suggest that only an inhibition of this pathway upstream of caspase activation will also result in the protection of nigrostriatal dopaminergic terminals and behavioral benefit, whereas an inhibition of caspases alone may not be sufficient to prevent the degeneration of terminals, although it may promote the survival of neuronal cell bodies for some time.
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Affiliation(s)
- J B Schulz
- Department of Neurodegeneration and Restorative Research, Center of Neurology, University of Göttingen, Göttingen, Germany.
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31
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Fernando P, Brunette S, Megeney LA. Neural stem cell differentiation is dependent upon endogenous caspase 3 activity. FASEB J 2005; 19:1671-3. [PMID: 16103108 DOI: 10.1096/fj.04-2981fje] [Citation(s) in RCA: 167] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/27/2023]
Abstract
Caspase proteases have become the focal point for the development and application of anti-apoptotic therapies in a variety of central nervous system diseases. However, this approach is based on the premise that caspase function is limited to invoking cell death signals. Here, we show that caspase-3 activity is elevated in nonapoptotic differentiating neuronal cell populations. Moreover, peptide inhibition of protease activity effectively inhibits the differentiation process in a cultured neurosphere model. These results implicate caspase-3 activation as a conserved feature of neuronal differentiation and suggest that targeted inhibition of this protease in neural cell populations may have unintended consequences.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pasan Fernando
- Ottawa Health Research Institute, Molecular Medicine Program, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada
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32
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Fischer U, Schulze-Osthoff K. New approaches and therapeutics targeting apoptosis in disease. Pharmacol Rev 2005; 57:187-215. [PMID: 15914467 DOI: 10.1124/pr.57.2.6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 199] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Apoptosis, the major form of cellular suicide, is central to various physiological processes and the maintenance of homeostasis in multicellular organisms. Presumably, even more important is a causative or contributing role of apoptosis to various human diseases. These include situations with unwanted cell accumulation (cancer) and failure to eradicate aberrant cells (autoimmune diseases) or disorders with an inappropriate loss of cells (heart failure, stroke, AIDS, neurodegenerative diseases, and liver injury). The past decade has witnessed a tremendous progress in the knowledge of the molecular mechanisms that regulate apoptosis and the mediators that either prevent or trigger cell death. Consequently, apoptosis regulators have emerged as key targets for the design of therapeutic strategies aimed at modulating cellular life-and-death decisions. Numerous novel approaches are currently being followed employing gene therapy and antisense strategies, recombinant biologics, or classical organic and combinatorial chemistry to target specific apoptotic regulators. Convincing proof-of-principle evidence obtained in several animal models confirms the validity of strategies targeting apoptosis and revealed an enormous potential for therapeutic intervention in a variety of illnesses. Although numerous apoptotic drugs are currently being developed, several therapeutics have progressed to clinical testing or are already approved and marketed. Here we review the recent progress of apoptosis-based therapies and survey some highlights in a very promising field of drug development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ute Fischer
- Institute of Molecular Medicine, University of Düsseldorf, Building 23.12, Universitätsstrasse 1, D-40225 Düsseldorf, Germany
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33
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Okada Y, Sakai H, Kohiki E, Suga E, Yanagisawa Y, Tanaka K, Hadano S, Osuga H, Ikeda JE. A dopamine D4 receptor antagonist attenuates ischemia-induced neuronal cell damage via upregulation of neuronal apoptosis inhibitory protein. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab 2005; 25:794-806. [PMID: 15729293 DOI: 10.1038/sj.jcbfm.9600078] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Neuronal apoptosis inhibitory protein (NAIP/BIRC1), the inhibitor of apoptosis protein (IAP) family member, suppresses neuronal cell death induced by a variety of insults, including cell death from ischemia and stroke. The goal of the present study was to develop an efficient method for identification of compounds with the ability to upregulate endogenous NAIP and to determine the effects on these compounds on the cellular response to ischemia. A novel NAIP-enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA)-based in vitro drug-screening system is established. Use of this system identified an antagonist of dopamine D4 receptor, termed L-745,870, with a potent NAIP upregulatory effect. L-745,870-mediated NAIP upregulation in neuronal and nonneuronal cultured cells resulted in decreased vulnerability to oxidative stress-induced apoptosis. Reducing NAIP expression via RNA interference techniques resulted in prevention of L-745,870-mediated protection from oxidative stress. Further, systemic administration of L-745,870 attenuated ischemia-induced damage of the hippocampal CA1 neurons and upregulated NAIP expression in the rescued hippocampal CA1 neurons in a gerbil model. These data suggest that the NAIP upregulating compound, L-745,870, has therapeutic potential in acute ischemic disorders and that our NAIP-ELISA-based drug screening may facilitate the discovery of novel neuroprotective compounds.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yoshinori Okada
- Department of Molecular Neuroscience, The Institute of Medical Sciences, Tokai University, Isehara, Kanagawa, Japan
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34
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Poulton NP, Muir GD. Treadmill training ameliorates dopamine loss but not behavioral deficits in hemi-parkinsonian rats. Exp Neurol 2005; 193:181-97. [PMID: 15817277 DOI: 10.1016/j.expneurol.2004.12.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 70] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/07/2004] [Revised: 11/19/2004] [Accepted: 12/06/2004] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
Abstract
The purpose of this study was to investigate whether locomotor training could ameliorate neurochemical changes and behavioral deficits in the 6-hydroxydopamine (6-OHDA) rat model of Parkinson's disease. It has been recently demonstrated that forelimb motor training, or brief treadmill training, can attenuate dopamine loss and some deficits in forelimb usage in this animal model. Nevertheless, it is not known whether locomotor training could result in an amelioration of locomotor deficits. Rats were lesioned with 6-OHDA injected intracerebrally and randomly assigned to one of 3 groups: early treadmill trained, late treadmill trained and untrained. Animals in the early trained group underwent 2 x 20 min treadmill sessions daily for 30 days, beginning 24 h after 6-OHDA injection. Late trained animals underwent the same training regime beginning 7 days post-injection. All animals were assessed on their abilities to perform several behavioral tasks designed to test locomotor and forelimb movement abilities prior to 6-OHDA injection and at 3 and 6 weeks post-injection. Treadmill training resulted in the attenuation of dopamine depletion in the striatum compared to non-treadmill trained animals, as measured by in vivo apomorphine-induced rotations and post-mortem dopamine analysis. Nevertheless, treadmill training produced essentially no difference in behavioral deficits on most tests compared to untrained animals. We discuss the possible reasons for the discrepancies with previous studies, including differences in lesioning, training regimes and methods of behavioral assessment. We conclude that treadmill training does not ameliorate locomotor deficits in the 6-OHDA model of Parkinson's disease, even though this same training results in attenuation of dopamine loss in the striatum.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nadine P Poulton
- Biomedical Sciences, WCVM, University of Saskatchewan, 52 Campus Drive, Saskatoon, SK, Canada S7N 5B4
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35
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Li W, Lee MK. Antiapoptotic property of human α-synuclein in neuronal cell lines is associated with the inhibition of caspase-3 but not caspase-9 activity. J Neurochem 2005; 93:1542-50. [PMID: 15935070 DOI: 10.1111/j.1471-4159.2005.03146.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Abnormalities of alpha-synuclein (alpha-Syn) are mechanistically linked to Parkinson's disease (PD) and other alpha-synucleinopathies. To gain additional insights into the relationships between alpha-Syn expression and cell death, we examined the effects of expressing human alpha-Syn (Hualpha-Syn) variants on the cellular vulnerability to apoptotic stimuli. We show that the expression of wild-type (WT) and A30P mutant, but not A53T mutant, Hualpha-Syn leads to the protection of neuronal cell lines from apoptosis but not necrosis. Significantly, Hualpha-Syn did not protect non-neuronal cell lines from apoptosis. We also show that A53T mutant is a loss of function in regards to the antiapoptotic property since the expression of WT Hualpha-Syn with an excess of A53T mutant Hualpha-Syn leads to protection of the cells from apoptosis. The antiapoptotic property is specific to human alpha-Syn as neither beta-Syn nor mouse alpha-Syn protected cells from apoptosis, and the carboxy-terminal 20 amino acids are required for the antiapoptotic property. Analyses of capase-3 and caspase-9 activation reveal that the antiapoptotic property of Hualpha-Syn in neuronal cell lines is associated with the attenuation of caspase-3 activity without affecting the caspase-9 activity or the levels of cleaved, active caspase-3. We conclude that Hualpha-Syn modulates the activity of cleaved caspase-3 product in neuronal cell lines.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wenxue Li
- Department of Pathology, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland 21205, USA
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36
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Ebert AD, Chen F, He X, Cryns VL, Bohn MC. A tetracycline-regulated adenovirus encoding dominant-negative caspase-9 is regulated in rat brain and protects against neurotoxin-induced cell death in vitro, but not in vivo. Exp Neurol 2005; 191 Suppl 1:S80-94. [PMID: 15629764 DOI: 10.1016/j.expneurol.2004.08.024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2003] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
Caspase-9 is a critical downstream effector molecule involved in apoptosis, a cell death process thought to be involved in the demise of dopamine (DA) neurons in the substantia nigra (SN) affected by Parkinson's disease (PD). In this study, we determined that a tetracycline-regulated adenovirus harboring a dominant-negative form of caspase-9 (Casp9DN) and the marker gene, enhanced green fluorescent protein (EGFP), under the control of a bidirectional promoter could each be regulated in vitro and in vivo by doxycycline. We next observed that Casp9DN gene delivery significantly protected against TNFalpha and cycloheximide-induced chromatin condensation in HeLa cells and prevented chromatin condensation and the appearance of the early apoptotic marker annexin V in 6-hydroxydopamine (6-OHDA) treated MN9D cells, a dopaminergic cell line. Effects of Casp9DN on DA neurons in vivo were also assessed. DA neurons were retrogradely labeled with fluorogold (FG) and transduced with Casp9DN and EGFP or EGFP alone. A progressive lesion of DA neurons was induced by striatal injection of 6-OHDA 1 week later. At 2 weeks post-lesion, a morphometric analysis of FG+ neurons in the SN revealed that the mean cell diameter of FG labeled neurons in the Casp9DN group was 8% and 21% larger than the EGFP and PBS groups, respectively (P <0.05). However, there was no difference among the treatment groups in the number of neurons remaining in the lesioned SN. These results suggest that while inhibiting apoptosis at the level of caspase-9 is protective in vitro, it is not protective against 6-OHDA-induced cell death in vivo.
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Affiliation(s)
- Allison D Ebert
- Children's Memorial Research Center, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, Chicago, IL 60614, USA
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37
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Abstract
Although it is apparent that neuronal death must be tightly regulated to ensure the proper development and mature functions of the nervous system, the molecular details of this regulation are not fully understood. In multiple neurodegenerative diseases, there is inappropriate death of cells in the nervous system. A better understanding of how death is regulated in the normal nervous system can provide a framework for determining how this regulation can go awry during neurodegenerative disease. The key executioners of neuronal apoptosis, the caspases, are regulated at several levels. The endogenous inhibitor of apoptosis family of proteins, the IAPs, can suppress caspase activity. In this Mini-Review, we examine what is known about the function of IAPs in normal neuronal function and in disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Giselle F Prunell
- Departments of Pathology and Neurology, Taub Institute for the Study of Alzheimer's Disease and the Aging Brain, Columbia University College of Physicians and Surgeons, New York, New York 10032, USA
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Mantoan L, Stefanova N, Egger KE, Jellinger KA, Poewe W, Wenning GK. Failure of caspase inhibition in the double-lesion rat model of striatonigral degeneration (multiple system atrophy). Acta Neuropathol 2005; 109:191-7. [PMID: 15549330 DOI: 10.1007/s00401-004-0931-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/07/2004] [Revised: 09/02/2004] [Accepted: 09/06/2004] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
In the present study we assessed the neuroprotective effects of the pan-caspase inhibitor z-VAD.fmk [N-benzyloxycarbony-valine-alanine-aspartate-(OMe)-fluoromethylketone], and the caspase-3 inhibitor Ac-DEVD.CHO (acetyl-aspartate-chloromethylketone) in the double-lesion rat model of striatonigral degeneration (SND), the core pathology underlying levodopa-unresponsive parkinsonism associated with multiple system atrophy (MSA). Male Wistar rats were divided into three groups, receiving either Ac-DEVD.CHO, z-VAD.fmk or normal saline before lesion surgery, comprising a sequential unilateral quinolinic acid (QA) lesion of the striatum followed by a 6-hydroxydopamine (6-OHDA) lesion of the ipsilateral medial forebrain bundle. At 2 weeks post lesion, all rats underwent testing of spontaneous nocturnal locomotor behavior in an automated Photobeam Activity System (FlexField). Immunohistochemistry was performed with tyrosine hydroxylase, dopamine and cyclic adenosine 3',5'-monophosphate-regulated phosphoprotein and glial fibrillary acidic protein antibodies. Morphometry was performed using computerized image analysis. Behavioral and morphological analysis failed to show striatal or nigral protection in caspase inhibitor-treated animals. Our findings suggest that anti-apoptotic strategies are unrewarding in the SND rat model and, therefore, alternative neuroprotective interventions such as anti-glutamatergic agents or inhibitors of microglial activation should be explored instead.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laura Mantoan
- Clinical Department of Neurology, Innsbruck Medical University, Anichstrasse 35, 6020, Innsbruck, Austria
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Reglodi D, Tamás A, Lubics A, Szalontay L, Lengvári I. Morphological and functional effects of PACAP in 6-hydroxydopamine-induced lesion of the substantia nigra in rats. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2004; 123:85-94. [PMID: 15518897 DOI: 10.1016/j.regpep.2004.05.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Pituitary adenylate cyclase activating polypeptide (PACAP) has several different actions in the nervous system, including neuroprotective effects. In the present study, we investigated the effects of different doses of PACAP on the functional and morphological outcome in a rat model of Parkinson's disease. Rats were given unilateral injections of 6-hydroxydopamine (6-OHDA) into the substantia nigra. PACAP-treated animals received 1, 0.1 or 0.01 microg PACAP as a pretreatment. Control animals without PACAP treatment displayed severe hypokinesia at 1 and 10 days post-lesion when compared to normal animals or those receiving saline only. PACAP treatment resulted in less severe acute hypokinesia, and complete recovery by 10 days. Asymmetrical signs were observed in all lesioned animals 1 day post-lesion. PACAP-treated animals, however, showed better recovery as they ceased to display asymmetrical signs 10 days later and showed markedly less apomorphine-induced rotations. Best behavioral outcome was observed in animals treated with 0.1 microg PACAP. Tyrosine-hydroxylase (TH) immunohistochemistry revealed increased number of dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra pars compacta and in the ventral tegmental area in all PACAP-treated rats in contrast to the severe cell loss in control animals. These results indicate that PACAP may be a promising therapeutic agent in Parkinson's disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dóra Reglodi
- Department of Anatomy, Pécs University Medical Faculty and Neurohumoral Regulations Research Group of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences, Szigeti u 12, 7624 Pécs, Hungary.
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Eberhardt O, Schulz JB. Gene therapy in Parkinson?s disease. Cell Tissue Res 2004; 318:243-60. [PMID: 15322915 DOI: 10.1007/s00441-004-0947-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/25/2004] [Accepted: 06/29/2004] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Gene therapy in Parkinson's disease appears to be at the brink of the clinical study phase. Future gene therapy protocols will be based on a substantial amount of preclinical data regarding the use of ex vivo and in vivo genetic modifications with the help of viral or non-viral vectors. To date, the supplementation of neurotrophic factors and substitution for the dopaminergic deficit have formed the focus of trials to achieve relief in animal models of Parkinson's disease. Newer approaches include attempts to influence detrimental cell signalling pathways and to inhibit overactive basal ganglia structures. Nevertheless, current models of Parkinson's disease do not mirror all aspects of the human disease, and important issues with respect to long-term protein expression, choice of target structures and transgenes and safety remain to be solved. Here, we thoroughly review available animal data of gene transfer in models of Parkinson's disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- O Eberhardt
- Department of General Neurology, Center of Neurology and Hertie Institute for Clinical Brain Research, University of Tübingen, Hoppe-Seyler-Str. 3, 72076 Tübingen, Germany.
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Mata M, Glorioso JC, Fink DJ. Gene transfer to the nervous system: prospects for novel treatments directed at diseases of the aging nervous system. J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci 2004; 58:M1111-8. [PMID: 14684708 DOI: 10.1093/gerona/58.12.m1111] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
In the past 3 decades, gene therapy has moved from a theoretical construct to an active field of basic research, animal studies, and clinical trials. In this article, we describe the conceptual basis underlying the use of gene therapy for diseases of the aging nervous system, the principal techniques used for gene delivery, and review preclinical animal studies in 4 different classes of neurologic dysfunction: 1) focal neuronal degeneration in the central nervous system; 2) global neuronal dysfunction in the central nervous system; 3) degenerative disease affecting components of the peripheral nervous system; and 4) intractable focal pain. The full potential of this approach will not be established until the human trials are completed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marina Mata
- Department of Neurology, University of Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 15213, USA
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42
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Abstract
The inhibitor of apoptosis (IAP) genes constitute a highly conserved family found in organisms as diverse as insects and mammals. These genes encode proteins that directly bind and inhibit caspases, and thus play a critical role in deciding cell fate. The IAPs are in turn regulated by endogenous proteins (second mitochondrial activator of caspases and Omi) that are released from the mitochondria during apoptosis. Overexpression of the IAPs, particularly the X-chromosome-linked IAP, has been shown to be protective in a variety of experimental animal models of human neurodegenerative diseases. Furthermore, overexpression of one or more of the IAPs in cancer cell lines and primary tumor samples appears to be a frequent event. IAP gene amplification and translocation events provide genetic evidence that further strengthens the case for classifying the IAPs as oncogenes. Therapeutic strategies that interfere with IAP expression or function are under investigation as an adjuvant to conventional chemotherapy- and radiation-based cancer therapy. This paper reviews the structure and function of the IAP family members and their inhibitors, and surveys the available evidence for IAP dysregulation in cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peter Liston
- Children's Hospital of Eastern Ontario, Research Institute, 401 Smyth Raod, Ottawa, Canada K1H 8L1
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Affiliation(s)
- E A Burton
- Department of Clinical Neurology, University of Oxford, Radcliffe Infirmary, Oxford, UK
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44
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Abstract
Apoptosis has become a major research area in the biomedical sciences. As there are more than 13,000 papers published annually on the topic, it is impossible to keep track on all developments in the area. The individual aspects of molecular control of apoptosis are well reviewed, but more general, introductory recent reviews into the field are lacking. This review aims to give a brief overview of the field, providing an introduction into the literature for students and newcomers; as it is written for the un-initiated, wherever possible, review articles will be cited rather than original papers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alfons Lawen
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Monash University, 100 Wellington Road, Australia.
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Inhibition of calpains prevents neuronal and behavioral deficits in an MPTP mouse model of Parkinson's disease. J Neurosci 2003. [PMID: 12764095 DOI: 10.1523/jneurosci.23-10-04081.2003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 214] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/25/2023] Open
Abstract
The molecular mechanisms mediating degeneration of midbrain dopamine neurons in Parkinson's disease (PD) are poorly understood. Here, we provide evidence to support a role for the involvement of the calcium-dependent proteases, calpains, in the loss of dopamine neurons in a mouse model of PD. We show that administration of N-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine (MPTP) evokes an increase in calpain-mediated proteolysis in nigral dopamine neurons in vivo. Inhibition of calpain proteolysis using either a calpain inhibitor (MDL-28170) or adenovirus-mediated overexpression of the endogenous calpain inhibitor protein, calpastatin, significantly attenuated MPTP-induced loss of nigral dopamine neurons. Commensurate with this neuroprotection, MPTP-induced locomotor deficits were abolished, and markers of striatal postsynaptic activity were normalized in calpain inhibitor-treated mice. However, behavioral improvements in MPTP-treated, calpain inhibited mice did not correlate with restored levels of striatal dopamine. These results suggest that protection against nigral neuron degeneration in PD may be sufficient to facilitate normalized locomotor activity without necessitating striatal reinnervation. Immunohistochemical analyses of postmortem midbrain tissues from human PD cases also displayed evidence of increased calpain-related proteolytic activity that was not evident in age-matched control subjects. Taken together, our findings provide a potentially novel correlation between calpain proteolytic activity in an MPTP model of PD and the etiology of neuronal loss in PD in humans.
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Abstract
The prenatal development of dopamine (DA) neurons of the substantia nigra (SN) is characterized by their birth, specification, and migration to their final positions. Their postnatal development is characterized by the establishment of contact and interactions between the SN and other neural nuclei, particularly the striatal target, by extension of axons, terminal differentiation, and synapse formation. In this postnatal context there is a natural cell death event, which is apoptotic in nature and biphasic in time course, with an initial peak on postnatal day (PND) 2, and a second on PND14. By PND20 the event has largely subsided. This natural cell death event is regulated in vivo by interaction with striatal target: it is augmented by axon-sparing target lesion, DA terminal destruction, and medial forebrain bundle axotomy. This target dependence is present largely within only the first two postnatal weeks. The striatal target-derived neurotrophic factor(s) that regulate this death event are unknown. We have shown, in a postnatal primary culture model of mesencephalic DA neurons, that glia-derived neurotrophic factor (GDNF) is unique in its ability to support their viability by suppressing apoptosis. We have also recently found that intrastriatal injection of GDNF in vivo suppresses apoptosis, and injection of neutralizing antibodies augments it. Thus, GDNF is a leading candidate for a striatum-derived neurotrophic factor for DA neurons during development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert E Burke
- Department of Neurology, The College of Physicians and Surgeons, Columbia University, New York, New York 10032, USA.
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Crocker SJ, Liston P, Anisman H, Lee CJ, Smith PD, Earl N, Thompson CS, Park DS, Korneluk RG, Robertson GS. Attenuation of MPTP-induced neurotoxicity and behavioural impairment in NSE-XIAP transgenic mice. Neurobiol Dis 2003; 12:150-61. [PMID: 12667469 DOI: 10.1016/s0969-9961(02)00020-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
X-linked IAP protein is a potent inhibitor of cell death. Here, we describe a novel transgenic mouse in which the human XIAP gene is expressed under the control of the neuron-specific enolase promoter (NSE-xiap). We demonstrate that nigrostriatal dopamine neurons of NSE-xiap mice were resistant to the damaging effects of the dopaminergic neurotoxin MPTP. MPTP-induced reduction of striatal dopamine metabolism was also attenuated in NSE-xiap mice. Furthermore, NSE-xiap mice treated with MPTP did not exhibit deficits in exploratory behaviour in an open-field test. Taken together, these findings suggest that strategies to enhance neuronal expression of XIAP may provide therapeutic benefit for the treatment of neurodegeneration in Parkinson's disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- S J Crocker
- Neuroscience Research Institute, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, Ontario K1H 8M5, Canada.
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Park HJ, Lim S, Joo WS, Yin CS, Lee HS, Lee HJ, Seo JC, Leem K, Son YS, Kim YJ, Kim CJ, Kim YS, Chung JH. Acupuncture prevents 6-hydroxydopamine-induced neuronal death in the nigrostriatal dopaminergic system in the rat Parkinson's disease model. Exp Neurol 2003; 180:93-8. [PMID: 12668152 DOI: 10.1016/s0014-4886(02)00031-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 81] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Abstract
Parkinson's disease (PD) is a chronic neurodegenerative disorder, and it has been suggested that treatments promoting survival and functional recovery of affected dopaminergic neurons could have a significant and long-term therapeutic value. In the present study, we investigated the neuroprotective effects of acupuncture on the nigrostriatal system in rat unilaterally lesioned with 6-hydroxydopamine (6-OHDA, 4 microg/microl, intrastriatal injection) using tyrosine hydroxylase (TH) and receptor for brain-derived neurotrophic factor, trkB, immunohistochemistries. Two weeks after the lesions were made, rats presented with asymmetry in rotational behavior (118.3 +/- 17.5 turns/h) following injection with apomorphine, a dopamine receptor agonist (0.5 mg/kg, sc). In contrast, acupunctural treatment at acupoints GB34 and LI3 was shown to significantly reduce this motor deficit (14.6 +/- 13.4 turns/h). Analysis via TH immunohistochemistry revealed a substantial loss of cell bodies in the substantia nigra (SN) (45.7% loss) and their terminals in the dorsolateral striatum ipsilateral to the 6-OHDA-induced lesion. However, acupunctural treatment resulted in the enhanced survival of dopaminergic neurons in the SN (21.4% loss) and their terminals in the dorsolateral striatum. Acupuncture also increased the expression of trkB significantly (35.6% increase) in the ipsilateral SN. In conclusion, we observed that only acupuncturing without the use of any drug has the neuroprotective effects against neuronal death in the rat PD model and these protective properties of acupuncture could be mediated by trkB.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hi-Joon Park
- Research Group of Pain and Neuroscience, Kyung Hee University, Seoul 130-701, Korea
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Galindo MF, Jordán J, González-García C, Ceña V. Chromaffin cell death induced by 6-hydroxydopamine is independent of mitochondrial swelling and caspase activation. J Neurochem 2003; 84:1066-73. [PMID: 12603830 DOI: 10.1046/j.1471-4159.2003.01592.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Our results provide evidence that 6-hydroxydopamine induced, after auto-oxidation, toxic levels of hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) that caused bovine chromaffin cell toxicity and death. 6-Hydroxydopamine (6-OHDA) treatment markedly reduced, in a dose-response fashion, chromaffin cell viability. Cell death was accompanied by cell shrinkage, nuclear condensation and DNA degradation. Under our experimental conditions, 6-OHDA auto-oxidation formed quinones and reactive oxygen species (ROS) that mainly contributed to 6-OHDA-induced cytotoxicity in bovine chromaffin cells. Accordingly, different antioxidants, including catalase, vitamin E, Mn(IIItetrakis(4-benzoic acid)porphyrin chloride (MnTBAP) or ascorbic acid, provided protection against 6-OHDA-induced toxicity. Further evidence that 6-OHDA induces oxidative stress is provided by the fact that this compound decreased total mitochondrial reduced NAD(P)H levels. Our results also suggest that mitochondrial swelling and caspase activation do not play a direct role in 6-OHDA-induced death in bovine chromaffin cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- María F Galindo
- Centro Regional de Investigaciones Biomédicas y Dpto. de Ciencias Médicas, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad de Castilla-La Mancha, Avda. España, s/n, 02071 Albacete, Spain
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50
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Martí MJ, Saura J, Burke RE, Jackson-Lewis V, Jiménez A, Bonastre M, Tolosa E. Striatal 6-hydroxydopamine induces apoptosis of nigral neurons in the adult rat. Brain Res 2002; 958:185-91. [PMID: 12468044 DOI: 10.1016/s0006-8993(02)03694-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
The massive dopaminergic neuronal loss that occurs in Parkinson's disease shows features of apoptosis. In the current study we have characterised the neuronal death in an animal model of Parkinson's disease. 6-Hydroxydopamine infused in the striatum of adult rats induced progressive loss of dopamine neurons, identified as tyrosine hydroxylase immunoreactive profiles, in the ipsilateral substantia nigra starting at day 5 post-lesion (32%). Silver staining revealed the presence of apoptotic profiles with neuronal morphology in the substantia nigra ipsilateral to the intrastriatal 6-hydroxydopamine injection. These apoptotic nuclei were first observed at day 6 post-lesion, peaked between days 7 and 10 and then abruptly declined. The apoptotic morphology of 6-hydroxydopamine-induced neuronal death was confirmed by electron microscopic studies. These data show that intrastriatal 6-hydroxydopamine-induced dopaminergic neuronal death in the adult rat is apoptotic and supports the use of this lesion protocol as an animal model of Parkinson's disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria J Martí
- Experimental Neurology Laboratory, Neurological Service, Fundació Clínic, Institut d'Investigacions Biomèdiques Agustí Pi i Sunyer (IDIBAPS), 08036, Barcelona, Spain.
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