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Gao D, Fang L, Liu C, Yang M, Yu X, Wang L, Zhang W, Sun C, Zhuang J. Microenvironmental regulation in tumor progression: Interactions between cancer-associated fibroblasts and immune cells. Biomed Pharmacother 2023; 167:115622. [PMID: 37783155 DOI: 10.1016/j.biopha.2023.115622] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/06/2023] [Revised: 09/20/2023] [Accepted: 09/28/2023] [Indexed: 10/04/2023] Open
Abstract
The tumor microenvironment (TME), the "soil" on which tumor cells grow, has an important role in regulating the proliferation and metastasis of tumor cells as well as their response to treatment. Cancer-associated fibroblasts (CAFs), as the most abundant stromal cells of the TME, can not only directly alter the immunosuppressive effect of the TME through their own metabolism, but also influence the aggregation and function of immune cells by secreting a large number of cytokines and chemokines, reducing the body's immune surveillance of tumor cells and making them more prone to immune escape. Our study provides a comprehensive review of fibroblast chemotaxis, malignant transformation, metabolic characteristics, and interactions with immune cells. In addition, the current small molecule drugs targeting CAFs have been summarized, including both natural small molecules and targeted drugs for current clinical therapeutic applications. A complete review of the role of fibroblasts in TME from an immune perspective is presented, which has important implications in improving the efficiency of immunotherapy by targeting fibroblasts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dandan Gao
- College of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Weifang Medical University, Weifang 261000, China
| | - Liguang Fang
- College of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shandong University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Jinan 250355, China
| | - Cun Liu
- College of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Weifang Medical University, Weifang 261000, China
| | - Mengrui Yang
- College of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Weifang Medical University, Weifang 261000, China
| | - Xiaoyun Yu
- College of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Weifang Medical University, Weifang 261000, China
| | - Longyun Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Quality Research in Chinese Medicine and Faculty of Chinese Medicine, Macau University of Science and Technology, 999078, Macao Special Administrative Region of China
| | - Wenfeng Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Quality Research in Chinese Medicine and Faculty of Chinese Medicine, Macau University of Science and Technology, 999078, Macao Special Administrative Region of China
| | - Changgang Sun
- College of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Weifang Medical University, Weifang 261000, China; Department of Oncology, Weifang Traditional Chinese Hospital, Weifang 261000, China.
| | - Jing Zhuang
- Department of Oncology, Weifang Traditional Chinese Hospital, Weifang 261000, China.
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2
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Abstract
PURPOSE OF REVIEW Here, we explore an emerging theme in the literature, which is the role of dendritic cells in the causation of fibrosis. To fully appreciate this pathway to disease, we also review the most recent literature regarding dendritic cell biology as it pertains to ocular surface tissues. On the basis of this information, we propose a unifying hypothesis for how dendritic cells may cause conjunctival fibrosis in the allergy setting. RECENT FINDINGS Work in models of airway remodeling and liver fibrosis has pointed to a potentially central role for dendritic cells in the pathobiology of fibrosis. Indeed, these cells are recognized as the most potent antigen-presenting cells, and as such activate T lymphocytes that are profibrotic under certain conditions. However, recent findings suggest a more direct role for dendritic cells, which opens up the possibility that a similar pathway may be relevant in the causation of conjunctival fibrosis, particularly in allergic eye disease. SUMMARY Conjunctival fibrosis is a serious clinical concern and is associated with chronic inflammation of the ocular surface tissue, such as in allergic eye disease. Dendritic cells are required in mediating allergic disease by activating pathologic T lymphocytes. Recent findings pointing to a central role for dendritic cell in fibrosis may, however, mean that these cells could also be contributing directly to conjunctival fibrosis. If so, furthering our understanding of dendritic cells could lead to the identification of novel and more effective therapeutic strategies to treat this disease.
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Freynet O, Marchal-Sommé J, Jean-Louis F, Mailleux A, Crestani B, Soler P, Michel L. Human lung fibroblasts may modulate dendritic cell phenotype and function: results from a pilot in vitro study. Respir Res 2016; 17:36. [PMID: 27044262 PMCID: PMC4820963 DOI: 10.1186/s12931-016-0345-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/04/2015] [Accepted: 03/09/2016] [Indexed: 01/14/2023] Open
Abstract
In human lung fibrotic lesions, fibroblasts were shown to be closely associated with immature dendritic cell (DC) accumulation. The aim of the present pilot study was to characterize the role of pulmonary fibroblasts on DC phenotype and function, using co-culture of lung fibroblasts from patients with idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis (IPF) and from control patients, with a DC cell line MUTZ-3. We observed that co-culture of lung control and IPF fibroblasts with DCs reduced the expression of specific DC markers and down-regulated their T-cell stimulatory activity. This suggests that pulmonary fibroblasts might sustain chronic inflammation in the fibrotic lung by maintaining in situ a pool of immature DCs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Olivia Freynet
- Inserm U 1152, 46, rue Henri Huchard, Paris, 75018, France.,Université Paris Diderot, Sorbonne Paris Cité, Paris, France.,DHU FIRE, Paris, France.,Assistance Publique-Hôpitaux de Paris, Hôpital Bichat, Service de Pneumologie A, Paris, France
| | - Joëlle Marchal-Sommé
- Inserm U 1152, 46, rue Henri Huchard, Paris, 75018, France.,Université Paris Diderot, Sorbonne Paris Cité, Paris, France.,DHU FIRE, Paris, France
| | - Francette Jean-Louis
- Inserm UMR-S 976, Université Paris Diderot, Sorbonne Paris Cité, Hôpital Saint Louis, Paris, France
| | - Arnaud Mailleux
- Inserm U 1152, 46, rue Henri Huchard, Paris, 75018, France.,Université Paris Diderot, Sorbonne Paris Cité, Paris, France.,DHU FIRE, Paris, France
| | - Bruno Crestani
- Inserm U 1152, 46, rue Henri Huchard, Paris, 75018, France. .,Université Paris Diderot, Sorbonne Paris Cité, Paris, France. .,DHU FIRE, Paris, France. .,Assistance Publique-Hôpitaux de Paris, Hôpital Bichat, Service de Pneumologie A, Paris, France. .,Service de Pneumologie, Hôpital Bichat, 46, rue Henri Huchard, Paris cedex 18, 75018, France.
| | - Paul Soler
- Inserm U 1152, 46, rue Henri Huchard, Paris, 75018, France.,Université Paris Diderot, Sorbonne Paris Cité, Paris, France.,DHU FIRE, Paris, France
| | - Laurence Michel
- Inserm UMR-S 976, Université Paris Diderot, Sorbonne Paris Cité, Hôpital Saint Louis, Paris, France. .,Inserm UMR-S 976, Hôpital Saint-Louis, 1 avenue Claude Vellefaux, 75475, Paris, 75010, France.
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Khosravi-Maharlooei M, Pakyari M, Jalili RB, Salimi-Elizei S, Lai JCY, Poormasjedi-Meibod M, Kilani RT, Dutz J, Ghahary A. Tolerogenic effect of mouse fibroblasts on dendritic cells. Immunology 2016; 148:22-33. [PMID: 26789277 DOI: 10.1111/imm.12584] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/06/2015] [Revised: 12/28/2015] [Accepted: 01/11/2016] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
There is controversy about the immunomodulatory effect of fibroblasts on dendritic cells (DCs). To clarify this issue, in this study, we have evaluated different features of fibroblast-primed DCs including their ability to express co-inhibitory and co-stimulatory molecules, pro-inflammatory and anti-inflammatory cytokines and their ability to induce T-cell proliferation. We also examined migratory capacity of DCs to lymphatic tissues and present fibroblast-derived antigens after encountering fibroblasts. The results of our in vitro study showed that both co-inhibitory (programmed death ligand 1 and ligand 2 and B7H4) and co-stimulatory (CD86) molecules were up-regulated when DCs were co-cultured with fibroblasts. In an animal model, we showed that intra- peritoneal injection (IP) of both syngeneic and allogeneic fibroblasts significantly increased both total DC count and expression level of co-inhibitory and co-stimulatory molecules on DCs. Priming of DCs with syngeneic and allogeneic fibroblasts reduced the proliferation of CD4(+) and CD8(+) T cells. Even activation of fibroblast- primed DCs failed to restore their ability to induce T-cell proliferation. Likewise, priming of DCs with fibroblasts blocked the ability of ovalbumin-pulsed DCs to induce proliferation of ovalbumin-specific CD4(+) T cells. Compared with non-activated DCs, fibroblast-primed DCs had significantly higher expression levels of interleukin-10 and indoleamine 2, 3 dioxygenase. Fibroblast-primed DCs had a significantly reduced interleukin-12 expression level compared with that of activated DCs. After priming with fibroblasts, DCs were able to migrate to lymphatic tissues and present fibroblast-derived antigens (ovalbumin). In conclusion, after priming with fibroblasts, DCs gain tolerogenic features. This finding suggests the potential role of fibroblasts in the maintenance of immune tolerance.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - MohammadReza Pakyari
- Department of Surgery, The University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
| | - Reza B Jalili
- Department of Surgery, The University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
| | - Sanam Salimi-Elizei
- Department of Surgery, The University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
| | - Jacqueline C Y Lai
- Department of Dermatology and Skin Science, Faculty of Medicine, Child and Family Research Institute, The University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
| | | | - Ruhangiz T Kilani
- Department of Surgery, The University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
| | - Jan Dutz
- Department of Dermatology and Skin Science, Faculty of Medicine, Child and Family Research Institute, The University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
| | - Aziz Ghahary
- Department of Surgery, The University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
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5
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Mancini RJ, Stutts L, Moore T, Esser-Kahn AP. Controlling the origins of inflammation with a photoactive lipopeptide immunopotentiator. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2015; 54:5962-5. [PMID: 25800006 DOI: 10.1002/anie.201500416] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/15/2015] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
Inflammatory immune responses are mediated by signaling molecules that are both produced by and recognized across highly heterogeneous cell populations. As such, the study of inflammation using traditional immunostimulants is complicated by paracrine and autocrine signaling, which obscures the origin of a propagating response. To address this challenge, we developed a small-molecule probe that can photosensitize immune cells, thus allowing light-mediated inflammation. This probe was used to control the origin of inflammation using light. Following this motif, inflammation was initiated from fibroblasts or dendritic cells. The contributions of fibroblasts and dendritic cells in initiating inflammation in heterogeneous co-culture are reported, thus providing insights into the future development of vaccines and treatment of inflammation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rock J Mancini
- Department of Chemistry, University of California, Irvine, 1102 Natural Sciences II, Irvine, CA 92697 (USA)
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Mancini RJ, Stutts L, Moore T, Esser-Kahn AP. Controlling the Origins of Inflammation with a Photoactive Lipopeptide Immunopotentiator. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2015. [DOI: 10.1002/ange.201500416] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
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Asadi M, Farokhi F, Delirezh N, Ganji Bakhsh M, Nejati V, Golami K. Fibroblast and T cells conditioned media induce maturation dendritic cell and promote T helper immune response. VETERINARY RESEARCH FORUM : AN INTERNATIONAL QUARTERLY JOURNAL 2012; 3:111-8. [PMID: 25653756 PMCID: PMC4312805] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/26/2011] [Revised: 02/27/2012] [Accepted: 06/15/2012] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Abstract
Dendritic cells (DCs) induce pathogen-specific T cell responses. We comprehensively studied the effects of addition of maturation stimulus, fibroblasts (fibroblast conditioned medium), PHA activated T cells (T cell conditioned medium), and mixture of fibroblast & PHA activated T cells (FCM-TCCM) conditioned media on maturation of DCs. Monocytes were cultured with GM-CSF and IL-4 for five days. Maturation factors included MCM and TNF-α as control group. FCM and TCCM, or FCM-TCCM supernatant were considered as the treatment group. Tumor antigens were added at day five. Matured DCs were harvested at day seven. Phenotypic and functional analyses were carried out using anti (CD14, CD80, CD86, CD83 and HLA-DR) monoclonal antibodies. Phagocytic activity, mixed lymphocyte reaction (MLR) and cytokine production were also evaluated. At the end of culturing period, significantly fully matured DCs with large amount cytoplasm and copious dendritic projections were found in the presence of MCM, TNF-α with or without FCM, TCCM, FCM as well as TCCM. Flow cytometric analysis revealed that expression of CD14 decreased in particular in treated DCs, at the 5(th) day and expression of CD80, CD86 and HLA-DR was higher when FCM, TCCM, FCM plus TCCM were added to maturation factor. This study demonstrated that DCs matured with these methods had optimum function in comparison with either factor alone.
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Affiliation(s)
- Masoumeh Asadi
- Department of Biology and Embryology, Faculty of Science, Urmia University, Urmia, Iran;
| | - Farah Farokhi
- Department of Biology and Embryology, Faculty of Science, Urmia University, Urmia, Iran;
| | - Nowruz Delirezh
- Department of Immunology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Urmia University, Urmia, Iran.
| | - Meysam Ganji Bakhsh
- Department of Biology and Embryology, Faculty of Science, Urmia University, Urmia, Iran; ,Correspondence: Meysam Ganji Bakhsh, Msc, Department of Biology and Embryology, Faculty of Science, Urmia University, Urmia, Iran, E-mail:
| | - Vahid Nejati
- Department of Biology and Embryology, Faculty of Science, Urmia University, Urmia, Iran;
| | - Keykavos Golami
- Department of Biology and Embryology, Faculty of Science, Urmia University, Urmia, Iran;
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Uto T, Nishi Y, Toyama M, Yoshinaga K, Baba M. Inhibitory effect of cepharanthine on dendritic cell activation and function. Int Immunopharmacol 2011; 11:1932-8. [DOI: 10.1016/j.intimp.2011.08.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/01/2011] [Revised: 07/25/2011] [Accepted: 08/03/2011] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
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9
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GanjiBakhsh M, Nejati V, Delirezh N, Asadi M, Gholami K. Mixture of fibroblast, epithelial and endothelial cells conditioned media induce monocyte-derived dendritic cell maturation. Cell Immunol 2011; 272:18-24. [PMID: 22035776 DOI: 10.1016/j.cellimm.2011.10.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/14/2011] [Revised: 10/02/2011] [Accepted: 10/03/2011] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
Fully matured DCs with large amount cytoplasm and copious dendritic projections were visible at the end of culturing period in the presence of MCM, TNF-α and poly (I:C), with or without FEECM. Thus, DCs generated with these maturation factors are nonadherent and have typical satellite morphology. Flow cytometric analysis using anti-CD14, -CD80, -CD86, -HLA-DR and -CD83 revealed that expression of CD14 is decreased in particular in FEECM treated DCs, on day 5 and expression of CD80, CD86 and HLA-DR was the higher when FEECM are added to maturation factor. Functionally, when DCs matured in the presence of FEECM elicited stronger MLR, reduced phagocytic activity. These results support the use of the FEECM with MCM, TNF-α and poly (I-C) as maturation factor in DC generation that could result in functionally mature monocyte-derived DCs in comparison to either alone.
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Affiliation(s)
- Meysam GanjiBakhsh
- Department of Biology, Faculty of Science, Urmia University, Urmia, Iran
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Shiraishi H, Yoshida H, Saeki K, Miura Y, Watanabe S, Ishizaki T, Hashimoto M, Takaesu G, Kobayashi T, Yoshimura A. Prostaglandin E2 is a major soluble factor produced by stromal cells for preventing inflammatory cytokine production from dendritic cells. Int Immunol 2008; 20:1219-29. [PMID: 18640970 DOI: 10.1093/intimm/dxn078] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Dendritic cells (DCs) are specialized antigen-presenting cells that play pivotal roles in initiating immune responses. However, DC maturation is usually strongly restricted by the stromal microenvironment, especially in non-lymphoid tissues, such as skin and mucosa. Although suppression of DC maturation by stromal cells has been well documented, the molecular basis of this suppression has not been established. In this study, we examined the role of fibroblasts for DC maturation in vitro. The mouse embryonic fibroblasts (MEFs) strongly suppressed LPS-induced DC maturation. Although suppression of class II MHC and CD40 required DC-MEF contact, soluble factors in the culture supernatant of MEFs were sufficient for the suppression of IL-12 and tumor necrosis factor-alpha production. Using molecular-size selection and HPLC, we determined that prostaglandin E2 (PGE2) is a major soluble inhibitory factor secreted by MEFs. This was confirmed by the fact that cyclooxygenase inhibitors inhibited the production of the suppressive factor by MEFs. These results suggest that PGE2 is a major soluble factor produced by MEFs for the suppression of inflammatory cytokine production from DCs, while a contact mechanism between MEFs and DCs is required for the suppression to induce T cell-stimulating molecules.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hiroshi Shiraishi
- Division of Molecular and Cellular Immunology, Medical Institute of Bioregulation, Kyushu University, 3-1-1 Maidashi, Higashi-ku, Fukuoka 812-8582, Japan
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Cabillic F, Rougier N, Basset C, Lecouillard I, Quelvennec E, Toujas L, Guguen-Guillouzo C, Corlu A. Hepatic environment elicits monocyte differentiation into a dendritic cell subset directing Th2 response. J Hepatol 2006; 44:552-9. [PMID: 16310277 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhep.2005.08.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/18/2005] [Revised: 07/05/2005] [Accepted: 08/02/2005] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND/AIMS Dendritic cells (DCs), which play a critical role during immune response, could present alternative differentiation patterns depending on tissue microenvironment. Our aim was to examine the influence of hepatic microenvironment on human monocyte differentiation into DCs. METHODS Cytology, immunophenotyping, cytokine production and T-cell activation were analyzed in DCs differentiated from human monocytes co-cultured with rat liver epithelial cells (RLEC) or human cells from various tissue origins and compared to control DCs obtained on plastic with GM-CSF/IL-4. RESULTS RLEC environment promotes DC differentiation in the presence of IL-4 without GM-CSF. These DCs evidence similar expression of MHC-II, co-stimulatory and adhesion molecules than control DCs, but distinct lineage markers defining a CD11c+/CD14+/CD123+ DC subset. This phenotype is common to DCs from RLEC and human liver environment and differs from that obtained with skin or intestine environments. Functionally, they produce IL-10 but not IL-12p70 and favor IL-4/IL-10 secretion by T-cells rather than IFN-gamma. CONCLUSIONS Our results confirm that tissue niches modulate DC differentiation and demonstrate that hepatic environment influences monocyte differentiation into a DC subset directing Th2 response, a key data for understanding the specialized immune response in liver. They also make RLEC co-culture system useful for studying liver DC functions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Florian Cabillic
- INSERM U522, IFR140, Université de Rennes 1, Hôpital Pontchaillou, 35033 Rennes, France
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Yang L, Hu Y, Hou Y. Effects of 17β-estradiol on the maturation, nuclear factor kappa B p65 and functions of murine spleen CD11c-positive dendritic cells. Mol Immunol 2006; 43:357-66. [PMID: 16310049 DOI: 10.1016/j.molimm.2005.02.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/04/2005] [Accepted: 02/15/2005] [Indexed: 01/30/2023]
Abstract
Physiological gender differences in immune capabilities are now well recognized and suggest that sex steroid hormones such as estrogens may be involved in the regulation of the immunocompetence. In this paper, CD11c-positive murine spleen dendritic cells (SDCs) were treated with various concentrations of 17beta-estradiol (E2) for 24h. The viability, phenotype, nuclear factor kappa B p65 (NF-kappaBp65), endocytosis, stimulatory capacity and cytokine expression were analyzed. Our results showed that E2 increased the viability and MHC-II expression but decreased nuclear NF-kappaBp65 level and endocytosis of SDCs. E2 also increased the stimulatory capacity of SDCs from low-dose group but decreased it from middle- and high-dose ones. In addition, E2 increased the intracellular expression of IL-6 and IL-10 in SDCs, but no obvious change appeared in IL-12 and TNF-alpha. These data suggested that E2 might influence the immune responses by changing the viability, maturation, NF-kappaBp65, endocytosis, stimulatory capacity and cytokine expression of SDCs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Linsong Yang
- Immunology and Reproductive Biology Lab, Nanjing University, Nanjing 210093, PR China
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Yang L, Liang J, Yao G, Chen P, Hou Y. 17β-estradiol regulates the numbers, endocytosis, stimulative capacity and IL-10 secretion of mouse spleen dendritic cells. Toxicol Lett 2005; 155:239-46. [PMID: 15603918 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxlet.2004.09.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/23/2004] [Revised: 09/17/2004] [Accepted: 09/23/2004] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
The 17beta-estradiol (17beta-E2) is a steroid sex hormone that has a profound influence on the immune cells in inducing the apoptosis of both T and B lymphocytes. In this study, mouse spleen dendritic cells (SDCs) were treated with 17beta-E2 and the numbers, endocytosis, stimulative capacity and cytokine production of SDCs were analysed. The results showed that 17beta-E2 reduced the proliferation and stimulative capacity of SDCs and increased the endocytosis of SDCs in a dose-dependent pattern. 17beta-E2 up-regulated IL-10 mRNA level in SDCs in a dose-dependent manner except for the 24 h time point. These data suggest that 17beta-E2 may regulate the physiological and pathological immune response by reducing the number and stimulation of SDCs, increasing their endocytosis and IL-10 mRNA expression at the same time.
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Affiliation(s)
- Linsong Yang
- Immunology and Reproductive Biology Lab, Medical School, Nanjing University, 22 Hankou Road, Nanjing 210093, PR China
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