An apoplastic mechanism for short-term effects of rare earth elements at lower concentrations

Transcription level differences in Taxus wallichiana var. mairei elicited by Ce3+, Ce4+ and methyl jasmonate

Taxol is a precious and effective anticancer drug. Cerium and methyl jasmonate (MJ) have been shown to increase the yield of taxol in taxus cells. However, the mechanisms of cerium-mediated and MJ-mediated taxol biosynthesis remain unknown. RNA-Seq was applied to study the overall regulation mechanism of cerium and MJ on taxol biosynthesis and analyze the differences among T. mairei cells elicited by Ce³⁺, Ce⁴⁺ and MJ on transcriptional level . Using sequence homology, 179 unigenes were identified as taxol synthesis genes. Under the condition of 100 μM MJ, taxol synthesis genes were up-regulated. Notably, taxol synthesis genes were down-regulated expression at 1 mM Ce³⁺ and 1 mM Ce⁴⁺. Differential expression genes involved in some related functions were analyzed, such as MAPK signaling pathway and plant-pathogen interaction. Sequence alignment and phylogenetic analysis of nine differentially expressed WRKYs in our data were carried out.

Chemical speciation and bioavailability of rare earth elements (REEs) in the ecosystem: a review

Rare earths (RE), chemically uniform group of elements due to similar physicochemical behavior, are termed as lanthanides. Natural occurrence depends on the geological circumstances and has been of long interest for geologist as tools for further scientific research into the region of ores, rocks, and oceanic water. The review paper mainly focuses to provide scientific literature about rare earth elements (REEs) with potential environmental and health effects in understanding the research. This is the initial review of RE speciation and bioavailability with current initiative toward development needs and research perceptive. In this paper, we have also discussed mineralogy, extraction, geochemistry, analytical methods of rare earth elements. In this study, REEs with their transformation and vertical distribution in different environments such as fresh and seawater, sediments, soil, weathering, transport, and solubility have been reported with most recent literature along key methods of findings. Speciation and bioavailability have been discussed in detail with special emphasis on soil, plant, and aquatic ecosystems and their impacts on the environment. This review shows that REE gained more importance in last few years due to their detrimental effects on living organisms, so their speciation, bioavailability, and composition are much more important to evaluate their health risks and are discussed thoroughly as well.

Oxidative effects, nutrients and metabolic changes in aquatic macrophyte, Elodea nuttallii, following exposure to lanthanum

We investigated the phytoremediation potential of Elodea nuttallii to remove rare earth metals from contaminated water. The laboratory experiments were designed to assess the responses induced by lanthanum (5-20mgL(-1)) in E. nuttallii over a period of 7 days. The results showed that most La (approximately 85%) was associated with the cell wall. The addition of La to the culture medium reduced the concentration of K, Ca, Cu, Mg, and Mn. However, O2(·-) levels increased with a concomitant increase in the malondialdehyde (MDA) concentration as the La concentration increased, which indicated that the cells were under oxidative stress. Significant reductions in the levels of chlorophyll (Chl) a, b, and carotenoids (Car) were observed in a concentration-dependent manner. However, the levels of reduced glutathione (GSH), total non-protein thiols (TNP-SH) and phytochelatins (PCs) increased for all La concentrations. The results suggested that La was toxic to E. nuttallii because it induced oxidative stress and disturbed mineral uptake. However, E. nuttallii was able to combat La induced damage via an immobilization mechanism, which involved the cell wall and the activation of non-enzymatic antioxidant.

Apoplastic calmodulin promotes self-incompatibility pollen tube growth by enhancing calcium influx and reactive oxygen species concentration in Pyrus pyrifolia

Calmodulin (CaM) has been associated with various physiological and developmental processes in plants, including pollen tube growth. In this study, we showed that CaM regulated the pear pollen tube growth in a concentration-dependent bi-phasic response. Using a whole-cell patch-clamp configuration, we showed that apoplastic CaM induced a hyperpolarization-activated calcium ion (Ca²⁺) current, and anti-CaM largely inhibited this type of Ca²⁺ current. Moreover, upon anti-CaM treatment, the reactive oxygen species (ROS) concentration decreased and actin filaments depolymerized in the pollen tube. Interestingly, CaM could partially rescue the inhibition of self-incompatible pear pollen tube growth. This phenotype could be mediated by CaM-enhanced pollen plasma membrane Ca²⁺ current, tip-localized ROS concentration and stabilized actin filaments. These data indicated that Ca²⁺, ROS and actin filaments were involved with CaM in regulating pollen tube growth and provide a potential way for overcoming pear self-incompatibility.

Rare-earth-incorporated polymeric vector for enhanced gene delivery

Cationic polymer PEI-CyD is doped with Nd by plasma technology to produce the gene vector: Nd@PEI-CyD. Luciferase expression and EGFP transfection experiments performed in vitro reveal that Nd@PEI-CyD has significantly higher transfection efficiency than lipofectamine 2000 and PEI-CyD and the mechanism is studied and proposed. The rare-earth element, Nd, stimulates the energy metabolism of cells, enhances cell uptake of complexes/pDNA, and regulates the cellular pathways. These special features suggest a new strategy involving metal-incorporated non-viral gene vectors.

Inhibition of apoplastic calmodulin impairs calcium homeostasis and cell wall modeling during Cedrus deodara pollen tube growth

Calmodulin (CaM) is one of the most well-studied Ca(2+) transducers in eukaryotic cells. It is known to regulate the activity of numerous proteins with diverse cellular functions; however, the functions of apoplastic CaM in plant cells are still poorly understood. By combining pharmacological analysis and microscopic techniques, we investigated the involvement of apoplastic CaM in pollen tube growth of Cedrus deodara (Roxb.) Loud. It was found that the tip-focused calcium gradient was rapidly disturbed as one of the early events after application of pharmacological agents, while the cytoplasmic organization was not significantly affected. The deposition and distribution of acidic pectins and esterified pectins were also dramatically changed, further perturbing the normal modeling of the cell wall. Several protein candidates from different functional categories may be involved in the responses to inhibition of apoplastic CaM. These results revealed that apoplastic CaM functions to maintain the tip-focused calcium gradient and to modulate the distribution/transformation of pectins during pollen tube growth.

Cerium elicitor-induced phosphatidic acid triggers apoptotic signaling development in Taxus cuspidata cell suspension cultures

Degradation of membrane phospholipids is associated with apoptotic responses, but the signaling development of this degradation is not well understood. Cerium (Ce(4+)), an important rare earth element, induces cellular apoptosis and taxol biosynthesis in Taxus cuspidata suspension cultures. Here, using mass spectrometry and biochemical technique, we demonstrated that the phospholipase D (PLD) was rapidly activated by Ce(4+) and hydrolyzed structural phospholipids to generate lipid signal molecule, phosphatidic acid (PA). 1-Butanol, an antagonist of PLD-dependent PA production, blocked the biphasic burst of superoxide anions (O2(*-)) and thus mitigated cellular apoptosis. The time-course analysis of PA accumulation and ERK-like mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) regulation indicated PA generation preceded MAPK activation, suggesting that the rapid accumulation of PA might be required for the initial MAPK activity. After 2h of Ce(4+) elicitation, however, PA-induced O2(*-) burst, forming a negative regulation to MAPK activity, which in turn led to apoptotic signaling development.

Lipidomic analysis reveals differential defense responses of Taxus cuspidata cells to two elicitors, methyl jasmonate and cerium (Ce4+)

Methyl jasmonate (MeJA) and cerium (Ce(4+)) elicitation share common features of increasing taxol accumulation of Taxus cuspidata cells. Interestingly, Ce(4+) induces programmed cell death (PCD), but this phenomenon is not observed with MeJA elicitation. Here, using a lipidomic approach to measure more than 100 membrane glycerophospholipids of T. cuspidata cells quantitatively, we discovered that lysophosphatidylcholine (LysoPC), phosphatidic acid (PA) and phosphatidylcholine were three potential lipid markers that were responsible for the differences between Ce(4+)-induced cells and MeJA-induced cells. Compared with MeJA elicitation, marked increase of phospholipase D (PLD) activity was observed following Ce(4+) elicitation, suggesting that the PLD activation and high concentrations of PA production might mediate the PCD. Rapid increase of phospholipase A(2) (PLA(2)) activity caused the release of fatty acids and LysoPC following Ce(4+) elicitation, which enhanced endogenous jasmonic acid (JA) accumulation. In contrast, PLA(2) activity was poorly induced following MeJA elicitation. PLA(2) inhibitor suppressed not only JA accumulation but also taxol production, suggesting that the PLA(2) activation mediated Ce(4+)-induced taxol production partially through a JA-dependent signaling pathway. These results demonstrate that differential alternation of glycerolphospholipids caused by phospholipases constitutes an important step in cell death response to Ce(4+) and increasing taxol production.

Signal role for activation of caspase-3-like protease and burst of superoxide anions during Ce4+-induced apoptosis of cultured Taxus cuspidata cells

The signal events of 1 mM Ce4+ (Ce(NH4)2(NO3)6)-induced apoptosis of cultured Taxus cuspidata cells were investigated. The percentage of apoptotic cells increased from 0.82% to 51.32% within 6 days. Caspase-3-like protease activity became notable during the second day of Ce4+-treatment, and the maximum activity was 5-fold higher than that of control cells at the fourth day. When the experiment system was pretreated with acetyl-Asp-Glu-Val-Asp-aldehyde (Ac-DEVD-CHO) at 100 microM, caspase-3-like activity resulted in distinct inhibition by 70% and 77.3% after 3 and 4 days of induction. Furthermore, 100 microM Ac-DEVD-CHO partially reduced the apoptotic cells by 58.6% and 60.8% at day 4 and 5 respectively. Ce4+ induced superoxide anions (O2*-) transient burst, and the first peak appeared at around 3.7-4 h, the second appeared at about 7 h. Both O2*- burst and cell apoptosis were effectively suppressed by application of diphenyl iodonium (NADPH oxidase inhibitor). Inhibition of O2*- production attenuated caspase-3-like activation by 49% and 53.6% during day 3 and 4 respectively. In addition, a total of 15 protein spots changed in response to caspase-3-like protease activation were identified by two-dimensional gel electrophoresis. These results suggest that Ce4+ of 1 mM induces apoptosis in suspension cultures of T. cuspidata through O2*- burst as well as caspase-3-like protease activation. The burst of O2*- exerts its activity as an upstream of caspase-3-like activation. Our results also implicate that other signal pathways independent of an O2*- burst possibly participate in mediating caspase-3-like protease activation.

La3+ uptake and its effect on the cytoskeleton in root protoplasts of Zea mays L

La(3+) ions are known to antagonize Ca(2+) and are used as a Ca(2+) channel blocker but little is known on the direct effects of La(3+). Micromolar La(3+) concentrations promoted root growth while higher concentrations were inhibitory. The uptake of La(3+) in maize root protoplasts revealed a membrane binding component (0.14 and 0.44 pmol min(-1) protoplast(-1) for 100 and 1,000 microM La(3+)) followed by a slower concentration and time-dependent uptake. Uptake was reduced by Ca(2+), but had no substantial effect on other ions. La(3+) shifted microtubule organization from random to parallel but caused aggregation of microfilaments. Our data suggest that La(3+) is taken up into plant cells and affects growth via stabilization of the cytoskeleton.