N-methyl-D-aspartate enhancement of the glycine response in the rat sacral dorsal commissural neurons

Glutamate, d-(-)-2-Amino-5-Phosphonopentanoic Acid, and N-Methyl-d-Aspartate Do Not Directly Modulate Glycine Receptors

Replication studies play an essential role in corroborating research findings and ensuring that subsequent experimental works are interpreted correctly. A previously published paper indicated that the neurotransmitter glutamate, along with the compounds N-methyl-d-aspartate (NMDA) and d-(-)-2-amino-5-phosphonopentanoic acid (AP5), acts as positive allosteric modulators of inhibitory glycine receptors. The paper further suggested that this form of modulation would play a role in setting the spinal inhibitory tone and influencing sensory signaling, as spillover of glutamate onto nearby glycinergic synapses would permit rapid crosstalk between excitatory and inhibitory synapses. Here, we attempted to replicate this finding in primary cultured spinal cord neurons, spinal cord slice, and Xenopus laevis oocytes expressing recombinant human glycine receptors. Despite extensive efforts, we were unable to reproduce the finding that glutamate, AP5, and NMDA positively modulate glycine receptor currents. We paid careful attention to critical aspects of the original study design and took into account receptor saturation and protocol deviations such as animal species. Finally, we explored possible explanations for the experimental discrepancy. We found that solution contamination with a high-affinity modulator such as zinc is most likely to account for the error, and we suggest methods for preventing this kind of misinterpretation in future studies aimed at characterizing high-affinity modulators of the glycine receptor. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT: A previous study indicates that glutamate spillover onto inhibitory synapses can directly interact with glycine receptors to enhance inhibitory signalling. This finding has important implications for baseline spinal transmission and may play a role when chronic pain develops. However, we failed to replicate the results and did not observe glutamate, d-(-)-2-amino-5-phosphonopentanoic acid, or N-methyl-d-aspartate modulation of native or recombinant glycine receptors. We ruled out various sources for the discrepancy and found that the most likely cause is solution contamination.

Protopanaxadiol ginsenoside Rd protects against NMDA receptor-mediated excitotoxicity by attenuating calcineurin-regulated DAPK1 activity

Neuroprotective strategies in the treatment of stroke have been attracting a great deal of attentions. Our previous clinical and basic studies have demonstrated that protopanaxadiol ginsenoside-Rd (Rd), a monomer compound extracted from Panax ginseng or Panax notoginseng, has neuroprotective effects against ischemic stroke, probably due to its ability to block Ca²⁺ overload, an usual consequence of the overactivation of NMDA receptor (NMDAR). As an extending study, we explored here whether Rd exerted its neuroprotection as a novel NMDAR blocker. Our whole-cell patch-clamp results showed that Rd reduced NMDAR currents of cultured rat cortical neurons (EC50 = 7.7 μM) dose-dependently by acting on extrasynaptic NMDAR NR2b subunit. However, unexpectedly, cell transfection and radioligand binding assays revealed that Rd did not bind to the NMDAR channel directly. Alternatively, it inhibited the phosphorylation of NR2b at Ser-1303, a target of death associated protein kinase 1 (DAPK1). Moreover, cell-based and cell-free enzymatic assays showed that Rd did not inhibit the activity of DAPK1 directly, but blocked the activity of calcineurin, a key phosphatase for activating DAPK1. Importantly, other protopanaxadiol ginsenosides were also found to have potential inhibitory effects on calcineurin activity. Furthermore, as expected, calcineurin inhibition by cyclosporin A could mimic Rd's effects and protect against NMDA-, oxygen glucose deprivation- or transient ischemic stroke-induced neuronal injury. Therefore, our present study provided the first evidence that Rd could exert an inhibitive effect on NMDAR-triggered currents and sequential excitotoxicity through mitigation of DAPK1-mediated NR2b phosphorylation by attenuating calcineurin activity.

NMDA receptor activation induces long-term potentiation of glycine synapses

Of the fast ionotropic synapses, glycinergic synapses are the least well understood, but are vital for the maintenance of inhibitory signaling in the brain and spinal cord. Glycinergic signaling comprises half of the inhibitory signaling in the spinal cord, and glycinergic synapses are likely to regulate local nociceptive processing as well as the transmission to the brain of peripheral nociceptive information. Here we have investigated the rapid and prolonged potentiation of glycinergic synapses in the superficial dorsal horn of young male and female mice after brief activation of NMDA receptors (NMDARs). Glycinergic inhibitory postsynaptic currents (IPSCs) evoked with lamina II-III stimulation in identified GABAergic neurons in lamina II were potentiated by bath-applied Zn2+ and were depressed by the prostaglandin PGE2, consistent with the presence of both GlyRα1- and GlyRα3-containing receptors. NMDA application rapidly potentiated synaptic glycinergic currents. Whole-cell currents evoked by exogenous glycine were also readily potentiated by NMDA, indicating that the potentiation results from altered numbers or conductance of postsynaptic glycine receptors. Repetitive depolarization alone of the postsynaptic GABAergic neuron also potentiated glycinergic synapses, and intracellular EGTA prevented both NMDA-induced and depolarization-induced potentiation of glycinergic IPSCs. Optogenetic activation of trpv1 lineage afferents also triggered NMDAR-dependent potentiation of glycinergic synapses. Our results suggest that during peripheral injury or inflammation, nociceptor firing during injury is likely to potentiate glycinergic synapses on GABAergic neurons. This disinhibition mechanism may be engaged rapidly, altering dorsal horn circuitry to promote the transmission of nociceptive information to the brain.

Ethanol effects on glycinergic transmission: From molecular pharmacology to behavior responses

It is well accepted that ethanol is able to produce major health and economic problems associated to its abuse. Because of its intoxicating and addictive properties, it is necessary to analyze its effect in the central nervous system. However, we are only now learning about the mechanisms controlling the modification of important membrane proteins such as ligand-activated ion channels by ethanol. Furthermore, only recently are these effects being correlated to behavioral changes. Current studies show that the glycine receptor (GlyR) is a susceptible target for low concentrations of ethanol (5-40mM). GlyRs are relevant for the effects of ethanol because they are found in the spinal cord and brain stem where they primarily express the α1 subunit. More recently, the presence of GlyRs was described in higher regions, such as the hippocampus and nucleus accumbens, with a prevalence of α2/α3 subunits. Here, we review data on the following aspects of ethanol effects on GlyRs: (1) direct interaction of ethanol with amino acids in the extracellular or transmembrane domains, and indirect mechanisms through the activation of signal transduction pathways; (2) analysis of α2 and α3 subunits having different sensitivities to ethanol which allows the identification of structural requirements for ethanol modulation present in the intracellular domain and C-terminal region; (3) Genetically modified knock-in mice for α1 GlyRs that have an impaired interaction with G protein and demonstrate reduced ethanol sensitivity without changes in glycinergic transmission; and (4) GlyRs as potential therapeutic targets.

Kainate receptor activation induces glycine receptor endocytosis through PKC deSUMOylation

Surface expression and regulated endocytosis of glycine receptors (GlyRs) play a critical function in balancing neuronal excitability. SUMOylation (SUMO modification) is of critical importance for maintaining neuronal function in the central nervous system. Here we show that activation of kainate receptors (KARs) causes GlyR endocytosis in a calcium- and protein kinase C (PKC)-dependent manner, leading to reduced GlyR-mediated synaptic activity in cultured spinal cord neurons and the superficial dorsal horn of rat spinal cord slices. This effect requires SUMO1/sentrin-specific peptidase 1 (SENP1)-mediated deSUMOylation of PKC, indicating that the crosstalk between KARs and GlyRs relies on the SUMOylation status of PKC. SENP1-mediated deSUMOylation of PKC is involved in the kainate-induced GlyR endocytosis and thus plays an important role in the anti-homeostatic regulation between excitatory and inhibitory ligand-gated ion channels. Altogether, we have identified a SUMOylation-dependent regulatory pathway for GlyR endocytosis, which may have important physiological implications for proper neuronal excitability.

Maintenance of proper membrane excitability is vital to neuronal function and in several neuronal types this relies on a balance between receptor-mediated excitation and inhibition. Here the authors report a crosstalk between excitatory kainate receptors and inhibitory glycine receptors that relies on the SUMOylation status of PKC.

Allosteric potentiation of glycine receptor chloride currents by glutamate

Neuronal excitability in the CNS is primarily controlled by a balance between synaptic excitation and inhibition. In the brainstem and spinal cord, synaptic excitation and inhibition are mediated by the excitatory transmitter glutamate acting on ionotropic glutamate receptor-gated cationic channels and the inhibitory transmitter glycine acting on glycine receptor (GlyR)-gated chloride channels. We found that glutamate and its analog ligands potentiated GlyR-mediated currents in both cultured spinal neurons and spinal cord slices of rats. This potentiation was not dependent on activation of any known glutamate receptor and manifested as an increase in single-channel open probability. Moreover, this glutamate potentiation was seen in HEK293 cells that transiently expressed GlyRs. Our data strongly suggest that glutamate allosterically potentiates GlyR-gated chloride channels, thereby blurring the traditional distinction between excitatory and inhibitory transmitters. Such a rapid homeostatic regulatory mechanism may be important for tuning functional balance between synaptic excitation and inhibition in the CNS.

Reciprocal regulation between taurine and glutamate response via Ca2+-dependent pathways in retinal third-order neurons

Although taurine and glutamate are the most abundant amino acids conducting neural signals in the central nervous system, the communication between these two neurotransmitters is largely unknown. This study explores the interaction of taurine and glutamate in the retinal third-order neurons. Using specific antibodies, both taurine and taurine transporters were localized in photoreceptors and Off-bipolar cells, glutamatergic neurons in retinas. It is possible that Off-bipolar cells release juxtaposed glutamate and taurine to activate the third-order neurons in retina. The interaction of taurine and glutamate was studied in acutely dissociated third-order neurons in whole-cell patch-clamp recording and Ca²⁺ imaging. We find that taurine effectively reduces glutamate-induced Ca²⁺ influx via ionotropic glutamate receptors and voltage-dependent Ca²⁺ channels in the neurons, and the effect of taurine was selectively inhibited by strychnine and picrotoxin, but not GABA receptor antagonists, although GABA receptors are present in the neurons. A CaMKII inhibitor partially reversed the effect of taurine, suggesting that a Ca²⁺/calmodulin-dependent pathway is involved in taurine regulation. On the other hand, a rapid influx of Ca²⁺ through ionotropic glutamate receptors could inhibit the amplitude and kinetics of taurine-elicited currents in the third-order neurons, which could be controlled with intracellular application of BAPTA a fast Ca²⁺ chelator. This study indicates that taurine is a potential neuromodulator in glutamate transmission. The reciprocal inhibition between taurine and glutamate in the postsynaptic neurons contributes to computation of visual signals in the retinal neurons.

Inhibitors of GlyT1 and GlyT2 differentially modulate inhibitory transmission

The chronic effects of glycine transporter 1 and 2 inhibitors (sarcosine and ALX-1393, respectively) on miniature inhibitory postsynaptic currents were studied in cultured spinal neurons. We found that sarcosine increased the frequency of overall miniature inhibitory postsynaptic currents without affecting the ratio of glycinergic, mixed and GABAergic miniature inhibitory postsynaptic currents, whereas ALX-1393 changed the ratio by increasing the proportions of GABAergic and mixed miniature inhibitory postsynaptic currents without affecting overall mIPSC frequency. We propose that inhibition of glycine transporter 1 by sarcosine increased overall mIPSC frequency via the activation of presynaptic glycine receptors, while inhibition of glycine transporter 2 by ALX-1393 changed the ratio of glycinergic, mixed and GABAergic miniature inhibitory postsynaptic currents by shifting the balance of inhibitory transmitters in vesicles towards gamma-aminobutyric acid.

Molecular structure and function of the glycine receptor chloride channel

The glycine receptor chloride channel (GlyR) is a member of the nicotinic acetylcholine receptor family of ligand-gated ion channels. Functional receptors of this family comprise five subunits and are important targets for neuroactive drugs. The GlyR is best known for mediating inhibitory neurotransmission in the spinal cord and brain stem, although recent evidence suggests it may also have other physiological roles, including excitatory neurotransmission in embryonic neurons. To date, four alpha-subunits (alpha1 to alpha4) and one beta-subunit have been identified. The differential expression of subunits underlies a diversity in GlyR pharmacology. A developmental switch from alpha2 to alpha1beta is completed by around postnatal day 20 in the rat. The beta-subunit is responsible for anchoring GlyRs to the subsynaptic cytoskeleton via the cytoplasmic protein gephyrin. The last few years have seen a surge in interest in these receptors. Consequently, a wealth of information has recently emerged concerning GlyR molecular structure and function. Most of the information has been obtained from homomeric alpha1 GlyRs, with the roles of the other subunits receiving relatively little attention. Heritable mutations to human GlyR genes give rise to a rare neurological disorder, hyperekplexia (or startle disease). Similar syndromes also occur in other species. A rapidly growing list of compounds has been shown to exert potent modulatory effects on this receptor. Since GlyRs are involved in motor reflex circuits of the spinal cord and provide inhibitory synapses onto pain sensory neurons, these agents may provide lead compounds for the development of muscle relaxant and peripheral analgesic drugs.

Aglycemia and ischemia depress spinal synaptic transmission via inhibitory systems involving NMDA receptors

The effects of in vitro aglycemia (glucose-free) and ischemia (glucose-free and O(2)-free) were examined on the dorsal root-evoked ventral root spinal monosynaptic and polysynaptic reflexes in neonatal rat spinal cords. Aglycemia and ischemia depressed the reflexes in a time-dependent manner and abolished them by 35 min. The depression by ischemia began immediately while that by aglycemia began after 15 min. The NMDA receptor antagonist, DL-2-amino-5-phosphonovaleric acid (APV), blocked the depression induced by aglycemia completely and that by ischemia partially. Strychnine (glycine(A) receptor antagonist) or bicuculline (GABA(A) receptor antagonist) blocked the aglycemia-induced depression of the reflexes. In the case of ischemia, strychnine but not bicuculline, blocked the depression partially. The results indicate that aglycemia and ischemia depress the synaptic transmission involving NMDA receptors. Aglycemia involves both gamma-aminobutyric acid-ergic and glycinergic inhibitory transmission while ischemia involves other additional mechanisms.

Asymmetric cross-inhibition between GABAA and glycine receptors in rat spinal dorsal horn neurons

Presynaptic nerve terminals of inhibitory synapses in the dorsal horn of the spinal cord and brain stem can release both GABA and glycine, leading to coactivation of postsynaptic GABAA and glycine receptors. In the present study we have analyzed functional interactions between GABAA and glycine receptors in acutely dissociated neurons from rat sacral dorsal commissural nucleus. Although the application of GABA and glycine activates pharmacologically distinct receptors, the current induced by a simultaneous application of these two transmitters was less than the sum of currents induced by applying two transmitters separately. Sequential application of glycine and GABA revealed that the GABA-evoked current is more affected by glycine than glycine-evoked responses by GABA. Activation of glycine receptors decreased the amplitude and accelerated the rate of desensitization of GABA-induced currents. This asymmetric cross-inhibition is reversible, dependent on the agonist concentration applied, but independent of both membrane potential and intracellular calcium concentration or changes in the chloride equilibrium potential. During sequential applications, the asymmetric cross-inhibition was prevented by selective GABAA or glycine receptor antagonists, suggesting that occupation of binding sites did not suffice to induce glycine and GABAA receptors functional interaction, and receptor channel activation is required. Furthermore, inhibition of phosphatase 2B, but not phosphatase 1 or 2A, prevented GABAA receptor inhibition by glycine receptor activation, whereas inhibition of phosphorylation pathways rendered cross-talk irreversible. Taken together, our results demonstrated that there is an asymmetric cross-inhibition between glycine and GABAA receptors and that a selective modulation of the state of phosphorylation of GABAA receptor and/or mediator proteins underlies the asymmetry in the cross-inhibition.

Ethanol suppresses fast potentiation of glycine currents by glutamate

Excitatory (glutamate) and inhibitory (GABA(A) and glycine) receptor/channels coexist in many neurons. To assess effects of ethanol on the interaction of glutamate and glycine receptors, glycine-induced current (I(Gly)) was recorded by a whole-cell patch-clamp technique from neurons freshly dissociated from the ventral tegmental area of rats. A conditioning prepulse of glutamate (1-3 s, 1 mM) significantly and reversibly potentiated responses to a pulse of glycine. This potentiation was increased when extracellular calcium was raised to 12 mM and reduced by including 10 mM 1,2-bis-(2-aminophenoxy)ethane-N,N,N',N'-tetraacetic acid in the internal recording medium. It was not affected by 5 microM 1-N,O-bis-(5-isoquinolinesulfonyl)-N-methyl-L-tyrosyl]-4-phenylpiperazine (KN-62), a selective inhibitor of calcium/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase II. In a concentration-response analysis, a conditioning pulse of glutamate significantly lowered the EC(50) for glycine and increased the maximal I(Gly). Kinetic analysis of the currents indicated that glutamate slowed deactivation of glycine-gated chloride channels; therefore, glutamate may increase the affinity of glycine receptors for glycine. When coapplied with glycine, ethanol (10 mM) potentiated I(Gly) in 35% of neurons from the ventral tegmental area. In contrast, when coapplied with glutamate and glycine, ethanol suppressed the glutamate-induced potentiation of I(Gly) in these neurons. This suppression was also observed when ethanol and glycine were coapplied after a glutamate prepulse. A similar effect was observed when ethanol alone did not potentiate I(Gly). These findings suggest that glutamate-induced calcium influx modulates glycine receptors by a mechanism that can be blocked by ethanol.

Tyrosine kinases enhance the function of glycine receptors in rat hippocampal neurons and human alpha(1)beta glycine receptors

Glycine receptors (GlyRs) are transmitter-gated channels that mediate fast inhibitory neurotransmission in the spinal cord and brain. The GlyR beta subunit contains a putative tyrosine phosphorylation site whose functional role has not been determined. To examine if protein tyrosine kinases (PTKs) regulate the function of GlyRs, we analysed whole-cell currents activated by applications of glycine to CA1 hippocampal neurons and spinal neurons. The role of a putative site for tyrosine phosphorylation at position 413 of the beta subunit was examined using site-directed mutagenesis and expression of recombinant (alpha(1)beta(Y413F)) receptors in human embryonic kidney (HEK 293) cells. Lavendustin A, an inhibitor of PTKs, depressed glycine-evoked currents (I(Gly)) in CA1 neurons and spinal neurons by 31 % and 40 %, respectively. In contrast, the intracellular application of the exogenous tyrosine kinase, cSrc, enhanced I(Gly) in CA1 neurons by 56 %. cSrc also accelerated GlyR desensitization and increased the potency of glycine 2-fold (control EC(50) = 143 microM; cSrc EC(50) = 74 microM). Exogenous cSrc, applied intracellularly, upregulated heteromeric alpha(1)beta receptors but not homomeric alpha(1) receptors. Substitution mutation of the tyrosine to phenylalanine at position beta-413 prevented this enhancement. Furthermore, a selective inhibitor of the Src family kinases, PP2, down-regulated wild-type alpha(1)beta but not alpha(1)beta(Y413F) receptors. Together, these findings indicate that GlyR function is upregulated by PTKs and this modulation is dependent on the tyrosine-413 residue of the beta subunit.

A novel mechanical dissociation technique for studying acutely isolated maturing Drosophila central neurons

A novel mechanical method, for studying acutely isolated maturing Drosophila central neurons, has been developed. Electrophysiological experiments have been carried out to assess the quality of these acutely dissociated neurons. The mechanically dissociated Drosophila central neurons were divided into three categories depending on their size and morphological features. Four types of whole-cell K(+) currents were identified in these neurons, based on their kinetic properties. Moreover, the K(+) currents in the new preparation were found to have similar electrophysiological and pharmacological properties to those reported in the cultured neurons. The new technique, however, was more rapid and convenient. Furthermore, this new system was successfully applied to the isolation of neurons from the adult Drosophila, a process that is extremely difficult by routinely used methods. Thus, this new preparation would be very reliable and applicable to preparing Drosophila central neurons for biophysical and physiological studies.